|
Clean
Development Mechanism Solutions Featuring Our
Our
Super High Efficiency *
Terms and Conditions for Free Solar Power System include: (1) For
qualified clients only. (2) Minimum size of
Utility-scale
Solar
Power Plants
Solar
Energy Systems:
Now Installing our Super High Efficiency Solar Energy Systems
Send
the above information to us via email:
PPA Funding for
Power Purchase Agreements
Providing
Capital and Funding for Power Purchase Agreements PPA
Fundsm
Project Location - Hawaii
Our Net Zero Energy Buildingsm upgrades "brown" buildings to "green" buildings, with our Solar Trigenerationsm energy system, similar to one installed on a 5,000 sq. ft. office building that has been operating "dis-connected" from the electric grid for 6 years. And, the owners received one of the first Platinum LEED awards in the U.S. Customers that could benefit from having their "brown" building upgraded to a "green" building with one of our Solar Trigenerationsm energy systems include: Casinos For many qualified commercial customers, we will install our Solar Trigenerationsm energy system (or one of our other Solar Energy Systems) at your business.... with no up-front costs!
and sell the "pollution
free power" power
and energy to your business - for LESS than what you are presently paying your
utility company/companies! Tel (832) 758 - 0027 Email: info@NetZeroEnergy.com
Now accepting resumes (by email only) for Independent Sales Representatives (ISR) that want to help customers convert their "brown" buildings to green, "Net Zero Energy Buildings" with one of our Solar Energy Systems. Prospective ISRs must have a proven background in selling one or more of the following;
Solar Energy Systems
to Fortune 1000 companies.
We supply the equipment, installation ( and financing through our Power
Purchase Agreement
for qualified commercial, municipal, government or utility clients with at
least a 100 kW installation) and any rebates the customer may be
entitled to.
Tel. (832) 758 - 0027 Email: info@NetZeroEnergy.com or info@NetZeroEnergyBuilding.com
For
More Information About the Clean Development Mechanism, Tel. (832) 758 - 0027 Email: info@CleanDevelopmentMechanism.net
Did you know
that the silicon
contained in only one ton of sand,
"Buy Solar Power, Not Solar Panels"sm
|
Clean
Development Mechanism
www.CleanDevelopmentMechanism.net
What
is the Clean Development
Mechanism?
The Clean Development
Mechanism as it relates to industrialized countries and their their
nation's companies are able to earn "Emission
Reduction Credits," while developing countries acquire technology and
capital and earn Emission
Reduction Credits that can either be banked or sold. Additionally
the Clean Development
Mechanism grants Emission
Reduction Credits for investments in new, emissions-reduction projects
that are located in developing countries.
The Clean Development Mechanism is a Kyoto Protocol "flexibility mechanism" that was authorized under Article 12 of the Kyoto Protocol which oversees emissions reductions in projects that are located in developing nations. These countries are not subject to the binding Greenhouse Gas Emissions caps under the Kyoto Protocol.
Our ecogeneration solutions are focused on "Carbon Free Energy" and "Pollution Free Power." These technologies, which include Concentrating Solar Power plants completely eliminates Greenhouse Gas Emissions and Carbon Dioxide Emissions from our climate and atmosphere which are associated with all fossil fuel power plants.
For more information: call us at: (832) 758 - 0027
What
is the Kyoto Protocol?
The Kyoto Protocol is an international agreement linked to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change. The major feature of the Kyoto Protocol is that it sets binding targets for 37 industrialized countries and the European community for reducing greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions of six primary greenhouse gases, which are:
carbon dioxide (which represents 80% of all Greenhouse Gas Emissions)
HFC's
methane
nitrous oxide
PFC's
sulfur hexafluoride
These Greenhouse
Gas Emissions amount to an average of five per cent against 1990 levels over the five-year period 2008-2012.
The major distinction between the Kyoto
Protocol and the Convention is that while the Convention encouraged
industrialized countries to stabilize Greenhouse
Gas Emissions, the Kyoto
Protocol commits them to do so.
Recognizing that developed countries are principally responsible for the current high levels of GHG emissions in the atmosphere as a result of more than 150 years of industrial activity, the
Kyoto
Protocol places a heavier burden on developed nations under the principle of “common but differentiated responsibilities.”
The Kyoto Protocol was adopted in Kyoto, Japan, on 11 December 1997 and entered into force on 16 February 2005. 184 Parties of the Convention have ratified its
Kyoto
Protocol to date. The detailed rules for the implementation of the Protocol were adopted at COP 7 in
Marrakesh in 2001, and are called the “Marrakesh Accords.”
The Kyoto Mechanisms
Under the Kyoto Protocol, countries must meet their targets primarily through national measures. However, the
Kyoto Protocol offers them an additional means of meeting their targets by way of three market-based mechanisms.
The Kyoto Protocol mechanisms are:
•International
Emissions Trading – known as “the carbon market"
•Clean development mechanism (CDM)
•Joint implementation (JI).
The mechanisms help stimulate green investment and help Parties meet their emission targets in a cost-effective way.
Monitoring Greenhouse Gas
Emissions targets
Under the Kyoto Protocol, a
country's actual emissions have to be monitored and precise records have to be kept of the trades carried out.
Registry systems track and record transactions by Parties under the mechanisms. The UN Climate Change Secretariat, based in Bonn, Germany, keeps an international transaction log to verify that transactions are consistent with the rules of the
Kyoto Protocol.
Reporting is done by Parties by way of submitting annual emission inventories and national reports under the
Kyoto Protocol at regular intervals.
A compliance system ensures that Parties are meeting their commitments and helps them to meet their commitments if they have problems doing so.
Adaptation
The Kyoto Protocol, like the Convention, is also designed to assist countries in adapting to the adverse effects of climate change. It facilitates the development and deployment of techniques that can help increase resilience to the impacts of climate change.
The Adaptation Fund was established to finance adaptation projects and programs in developing countries that are Parties to the
Kyoto Protocol. The Fund is financed mainly with a share of proceeds from
Clean Development Mechanism
project activities.
The road ahead
The Kyoto Protocol is generally seen as an important first step towards a truly global emission reduction regime that will stabilize
Greenhouse Gas Emissions, and provides the essential architecture for any future international agreement on climate change.
By the end of the first commitment period of the Kyoto
Protocol in 2012, a new international framework needs to have been negotiated and ratified that can deliver the stringent emission reductions the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) has clearly indicated are needed.
April 18, 2009
By: Webmaster
www.CarbonDioxideEmissions.com
www.CarbonEmissions.com
www.GreenhouseGasEmissions.com
WASHINGTON
— In a major reversal of years of government policy regarding Greenhouse
Gas Emissions, the Environmental Protection Agency today proposed regulating
Greenhouse Gas Emissions to
combat and reverse global warming and climate change.
"In both magnitude and probability, climate change is an enormous problem" said E.P.A's Administrator Lisa Jackson in their 130 page report on Greenhouse Gas Emissions. "This finding confirms that greenhouse gas pollution is a serious problem now and for future generations. Fortunately, it follows [US President Barack H. Obama's] call for a low-carbon economy and strong leadership in Congress on clean energy and climate legislation. Greenhouse Gas Emissions and greenhouse gas pollution problems have a solution, one that will create millions of green jobs and end our country's dependence on foreign oil," according to Jackson.
Jackson said this report found that projected levels of Greenhouse Gas Emissions "endanger the public health and welfare of current and future generations." The finding came two years after the Supreme Court ruled the EPA had the authority to regulate Greenhouse Gas Emissions under the Clean Air Act.
"Renewable Energy Technologies such as; Anaerobic Digesters, Biomethane, Concentrating Solar Power, Geothermal Power Plants are "carbon neutral energy" technologies, and generate no new Greenhouse Gas Emissions. Power generated from Biomass Gasification power plants, are "carbon negative energy" solutions which actually remove carbon dioxide emissions from the atmosphere, according to the Founder and Chairman of the Institute for Climate Solutions, and the Renewable Energy Institute's Mont Goodell.
For more information, see the Greenhouse Gas Emissions website at: www.GreenhouseGasEmissions.com
____________________________________________________________________________________
Since the Year 1750
| ## |
|
World CO2 since 1750 (cubic feet) |
The carbon clock tracks total Carbon
Dioxide Emissions in metric tons since 1750.
Since 1750, humans have produced over 5 trillion pounds of Carbon Dioxide Emissions into the atmosphere.
Roughly half of these Carbon Dioxide Emissions have ended up in the oceans where it is beginning to damage the coral reefs. The other half is still in the atmosphere and causing global warming.
Each pound of Carbon Dioxide ("CO2") takes up as much space as a 500 pound
person.
The formula (which should be good for a year or two) is:
C(t) = 2.58 ×1012 + 1240×t, where t is seconds since the start of 2007.
C is tonnes (metric tons) of Carbon
Dioxide Emissions.
2205 x C gives pounds of Carbon
Dioxide Emissions.
That comes to over 43 billion tons/year or over 86 trillion pounds/year.
Carbon dioxide is made up from 1 carbon atom with 2 oxygen atoms, or
simply, "CO2."
Carbon has relative weight 12 and Oxygen 16. Therefore, it takes only 12 pounds of carbon to make 12+16+16 = 44 pounds of
Carbon Dioxide (CO2).
_______________________________________________________________________________
According
to R. James Woolsey, for Director of the Central Intelligence Agency, "The basic
insight is to realize that global warming, the geopolitics of oil, and warfare in the Persian Gulf are not separate problems --- they are aspects of a single problem, the West's dependence on oil."
_______________________________________________________________________________
According
to a report by the United Nations:
"It
is estimated that Greenhouse
Gas Emissions
trading markets could be worth $2 Trillion by
2012."
_____________________________________________________

Photo courtesy of Alaska Image Library. U.S.
Fish and Wildlife Service
What is "Decentralized Energy"?
Decentralized
Energy is the opposite of "centralized energy." Decentralized
Energy energy generates the power and energy that a residential, commercial or
industrial customer needs, onsite. Examples of decentralized energy production
are solar energy systems and solar
trigeneration energy systems. Today's
electric utility industry was "born" in the 1930's, when fossil fuel
prices were cheap, and the cost of wheeling the electricity via transmission
power lines, was also cheap. "Central" power plants could be
located hundreds of miles from the load centers, or cities, where the
electricity was needed. These extreme inefficiencies and cheap fossil fuel
prices have added a considerable economic and environmental burden to the
consumers and the planet. Centralized
energy is found in the form of electric utility companies that generate power
from "central" power plants. Central power plants are highly
inefficient, averaging only 33% net system efficiency. This means that the
power coming to your home or business - including the line losses and
transmission inefficiencies of moving the power - has lost 75% to as much as 80%
energy it started with at the "central" power plant. These
losses and inefficiencies translate into significantly increased energy expenses
by the residential and commercial consumers. Decentralized Energy
is the Best Way to Generate Clean and Green Energy!
How
we make and distribute electricity is changing!
The
electric power
generation, transmission and distribution system (the electric
"grid") is changing and evolving from the electric grid of the
19th and 20th centuries, which was inefficient, highly-polluting, very
expensive and
“dumb.”
The "old" way of generating and distributing
energy resembles this slide:
Some customers will choose to dis-connect from the
grid entirely.
(Electric grid represented by the small light blue circles in the slide below.)
Typical
"central" power plants and the electric utility companies
that own them will either be shut-down, closed or go out of business due
to one or more of the following: failed business model, inordinate
expenses related to central power plants that are inefficient, excessive
pollution/emissions, high costs, continued reliance on the use of fossil
fuels to generate energy, and the failure to provide efficient, carbon
free energy and pollution free
power. Carbon
free energy and pollution free
power reduces our dependence on foreign oil and makes us Energy
Independent while reducing and eliminating Greenhouse
Gas Emissions.
Feed-in tariffs
have been used as a "stimulus" to jump start the renewable energy
industry in many countries. They were widely adopted by countries in
Europe such as Germany, which has repeatedly led the world in solar energy
systems deployment, all because of their Feed-in tariffs. Feed-in tariffs
have proven to be much more successful than the Renewable
Portfolio Standard that is still presently used in the U.S. More
specifically, a feed-in tariff is the price per unit of electricity that a utility or supplier has to pay for renewable electricity from private
generators, such as a home owner who has, for example, installed a solar
energy system on their rooftop.
What
is Demand Side Management? Demand
Side Management, or "DSM" is the process of managing the consumption
of energy, generally to optimize available and planned generation resources. According
to the Department of Energy, Demand Side Management refers to "actions
taken on the customer's side of the meter to change the amount or timing of
energy consumption. Utility DSM programs offer a variety of measures that can
reduce energy consumption and consumer energy expenses. Electricity DSM
strategies have the goal of maximizing end-use efficiency to avoid or postpone
the construction of new generating plants."
What is Automated Demand
Response? Automated
Demand Response is a Demand Side Management solution that is
specifically designed for a customer's specific location, energy/power
requirements, and also for the specific electric rates for that customer's
location. Automated Demand Response does not involve human intervention, but is initiated at a facility through receipt of an external communications signal.
Automated Demand Response is a rather new area of DSM technologies and may
provide a lucrative revenue stream for customers who can curtail electric load in response to demand incentives, ICAP payments, and/or commodity prices.
Automated demand response technology seeks to automatically, through
software and hardware applications, to respond to variations in the
electricity/power market prices.
What is Demand
Response and How is it Different from "Demand Side
Management"? "Demand
Response" is a subset of Demand Side
Management (DSM) or a potential Demand Side Management program
solution which helps make the electric grid much more efficient and balanced
by assisting the electric grid's commercial and industrial customers reduce
their electric demand, and/or shifts the time period when they use their
electricity, and/or prioritizes the way they use electricity, and in so doing,
reduces their overall energy costs. A Demand Side Management Program will
include measures that promotes the following: Reduced
customer peak and overall energy demand
Improves the electric grid's reliability Balances
the electric grid through increased efficiency Energy
efficiency
Manages electricity costs Conservation
through both behavioral and operational changes
Load
management
Fuel
switching
Distributed
energy And provide systems that encourage load shifting or load shedding
during times when the electric grid is near its capacity or electric
power prices are high Demand
Response has also been defined as a "Demand Side Management"
subset that is a set of time dependent activities that reduces or
shifts electricity use of selected customers. Electric power generation and distribution systems are strongly affected by supply-side policies (how, when, and where to generate electricity, how to couple generation into the grid, how to transmit and distribute generated electricity) and demand-side policies (pricing schemes, conservation efforts, customer premises automation, and, in extreme circumstances, rolling blackouts).
Demand-side programs focus on reducing the peak-to-average demand profiles through automation in the customer premises. What
are Demand Response
Programs? Demand
Response Programs are programs usually designed and offered by
electric utilities that offers those clients that sign-up for specific DR
programs with financial incentives and other benefits that help those
participating customers to curtail energy use. These actions by the
electric utilities and participating clients provide a reliable,
predictable amount of power (megawatts) that the ISO's and RTO's can count on during an emergency when energy supplies are
low, and there is an inadequate amount of available power generation. The
electric utilities typically require that those customers that enroll in
their DR program(s) install certain software and hardware, that communicates
with these client's online energy management systems, and can control
these client's electric power requirements as needed.
What is "Peak
Shaving?" Peak shaving is
our demand side management
solutions that reduces the use peak demand and amount of electricity by
commercial and utility customers. Peak-shaving
may significantly reduce the peak demand as well as the energy expenses for
clients that have implemented a peak-shaving solution. One
of the preferred technologies for peak-shaving
is an onsite power generation
system, which could be a natural gas engine genset, or a cogeneration
or trigeneration energy system.
We provide Automated
Demand Response, Bulk Energy
Storage, Demand Side
Management, and packaged Cogeneration and
Trigeneration
energy systems. Also
now in our product offerings is a complete line of solar
energy systems, including; Evacuated
Tube Collectors, Solar
Cogeneration, Solar
Trigeneration and Solar
Water Heating Systems. We can transform your facility into a "Net
Zero Energy Building™ and eliminate your greenhouse
gas emissions!
___________________________________________________________________________
Concentrated
Solar Power Project Development, Engineering, Project
Development
Engineering
Feasibility
Studies
Legal Procurement Construction Finance/Funding/Investments Greenhouse
Gas Emissions trading credits Operations
& Maintenance and
other consulting services
for clients interested in "utility-scale" Concentrated Solar Power plants. Our work is
performed on a strict adherence to "vendor-neutrality." We
seek to maximize the return on investment from both the economic and
environmental aspects while simultaneously minimizing the operational expenses
for our clients.
What is Concentrated Solar
Power?
Concentrated
solar power plants produce electric power by converting the sun's energy
into high-temperature heat using various mirror configurations. The heat
is then channeled through a conventional generator. The plants consist
of two parts: one that collects solar energy and converts it to heat,
and another that converts heat energy to electricity.
Concentrated
solar power systems can be sized for village power (10 kilowatts) or
grid-connected applications (up to 100 megawatts). Some systems use
thermal storage during cloudy periods or at night. Others can be
combined with natural gas and the resulting hybrid power plants provide
high-value, dispatchable power. These attributes, along with world
record solar-to-electric conversion efficiencies, make concentrating
solar power an attractive renewable energy option in the Southwest and
other sunbelt regions worldwide.
Concentrated Solar Power Magazine
In
addition to offering Concentrated Solar Power Project Development, Engineering, In
collaboration with the
Renewable Energy Institute, we
provide turnkey Concentrating
Solar Power and High
Concentration Photovoltaic (HCPV)power plant project
development services - from
project inception and engineering
feasibility study - through design
and engineering, procurement, construction, financing, power
purchase agreements, utility
interconnection agreements, environmental, permitting,
commissioning, greenhouse
gas emissions credits, molten
salt storage and ongoing operations and maintenance of utility-scale
Concentrating
Solar Power plants.
www.GreenhouseGasEmissions.com www.NetZeroEnergy.com Greenhouse
Gas Emissions www.GreenhouseGasEmissions.com
What is a
" Feed In Tariff"?
A "feed
in tariff" has proven to be the most successful incentive for rapidly
expanding the use of renewable
energy technologies.
Feed-in tariffs are also known
as: Electricity Feed Laws, Feed-in Tariffs (FITs), Advanced Renewable Tariffs
(ARTs)
and Renewable Tariffs.
Not all businesses are candidates for cogeneration or
trigeneration, however,
your company may be a great candidate for other energy-saving solutions. One
of these is Demand Side Management, or "DSM". We also provide
cost-effective DSM solutions.
Demand Response or Demand Side Management can be achieved through demand reduction, by shifting load to a less expensive time period, or by substituting another resource for delivered electricity (such as
natural gas or onsite power generation, also known as "distributed
generation."
Demand Response (DR) is a set of activities to reduce or shift electricity use to improve electric grid reliability, manage electricity costs, and ensure that customers receive signals that encourage load reduction during times when the electric grid is near its capacity. The two main drivers for widespread demand responsiveness are the prevention of future electricity crises and the reduction of electricity prices. Additional goals for price responsiveness include equity through cost of service pricing, and customer control of electricity usage and bills. The technology developed and evaluated in this report could be used to support numerous forms of DR programs and tariffs.
A recent pilot test to enable an Automatic Demand Response system in California has revealed several lessons that are important to consider for a wider application of a regional or statewide Demand Response Program.
The six facilities involved in the site testing were from diverse areas of our economy. The test subjects included a major retail food marketer and one of their retail grocery stores, financial services buildings for a major bank, a postal services facility, a federal government office building, a state university site, and ancillary buildings to a pharmaceutical research company. Although these organizations are all serving diverse purposes and customers, they share some underlying common characteristics that make their simultaneous study worthwhile from a market transformation perspective. These are large organizations. Energy efficiency is neither their core business nor are the
decision-makers who will enable this technology powerful players in their organizations. The management of buildings is perceived to be a small issue for top management and unless something goes wrong, little attention is paid to the building manager's problems.
All of these organizations contract out a major part of their technical building operating systems. Control systems and energy management systems are proprietary. Their systems do not easily interact with one another. Management is, with the exception of one site, not electronically or computer literate enough to understand the full dimensions of the technology they have purchased. Despite the research teams development of a simple, straightforward method of informing them about the features of the demand response program, they had significant difficulty enabling their systems to meet the needs of the research. The research team had to step in and work directly with their vendors and contractors at all but one location. All of the participants have volunteered to participate in the study for altruistic reasons, that is, to help find solutions to California's energy problems. They have provided support in workmen, access to sites and vendors, and money to participate. Their efforts have revealed organizational and technical system barriers to the implementation of a wide scale
program.
Concentrated
Solar Power
www.ConcentratedSolarPower.com
Feasibility Studies and Consulting Services
Tel. (78327)7
758 - 00277
Email:
info@ConcentratedSolarPower.com
We
provide Concentrated Solar Power:
Feasibility Studies and Consulting Services, we will be publishing the
CSP magazine at: www.ConcentratedSolarPower.com
Why Not Go Green?sm
Solar
Energy Systems Now Available with
Zero Up-front Costs
for Qualified Commercial & Industrial Clients in the U.S., Canada or
Caribbean
Upgrade your Brown Building to a
Green Building
With our Net
Zero Energy Buildingsm
Retrofit
Eliminate your Company's Carbon
Emissions and Greenhouse
Gas Emissions!
More information at the following sites:
www.CarbonEmissions.com
www.PowerPurchaseAgreement.com
Solar
Trigenerationsm
www.SolarTrigeneration.com
We install our Solar Trigenerationsm Energy Systems, for qualified commercial businesses, as well as cities, schools and government facilities with our Zero Up-front Cost program.
For some customers - based on their present location, utility company and electric rate - we are able to reduce their electric rate by 10%. Even more for other customers. Solar Trigenerationsm Energy System!
We provide the answers to your questions about solar power and energy!
Does your; business, city, school, or electric utility want a more sustainable solar power and energy solution?
Are you interested in transforming your facility, campus or building(s) to "Net Zero Energy"™ buildings?
Does your city or school have a problem with rising electricity and energy expenses, but not have the financial resources to provide the necessary updates and upgrades to make your buildings more efficient?
Maybe you have already decided to go solar, but you have a lot of questions, and don't know where to start. Call us, we have the answers to your solar questions.
What is the optimum solar solution? There are hundreds of companies in the solar power and energy industry..... Who do you call to help you with these questions to help you make the right decisions?
There's still more questions, that you may not have thought about..... which solar technology do you go with, and what is the return on investment?
Are there any solar rebates, refunds, tax credits or other incentives available?
What about investors that might be interested in owning/operating and maintaining our solar energy system under a Power Purchase Agreement?
You have numerous questions and need the answers to help in the decision-making process regarding the solar power and energy system you want to install. These decisions will have a long-lasting impact as the solar energy system that you install at your business or facility will probably be generating clean power for the next 40 to 50 years, if not longer! So, the decisions that you need to make now regarding your solar energy system will be a decision that will be either a long-term asset or a liability, depending on the equipment you select and who you choose to install it.
We can help cities, schools and commercial (and large residential) customers make the switch to solar!
And now, with our no up-front cost for our Solar Trigenerationsm Energy System, we can also transform your building(s) to a "Net Zero Energy Building"™ and many times, actually REDUCE your present energy expenses by 10%, and possibly more!
Examples of buildings/facilities where our Solar Trigenerationsm Energy Systems would benefit, include; universities, churches, data centers, shopping centers, schools, radio/television stations, food processing, warehouses, new real estate developments and subdivisions, and electric utilities - practically any commercial facility can be upgraded to one of our "pollution free power" systems featuring one of our solar energy systems, including our Solar Trigenerationsm system!
Call or email us, we can provide these answers. We are focused on providing the optimum solar energy systems for our clients. This begins with an initial review of your past 12 months energy/electrical bills. The next step would include a site visit which may include a Demand Side Management study and/or a Solar Feasibility Study which determines the optimum solar energy system for your facility or location. Once the optimum solar solution(s) are determined, we then have a blueprint to proceed that could include our installing one of our Solar Cogeneration™ or Solar Trigenerationsm energy systems. Or for a city, real estate development or subdivision, or an electric utility, one of our utility scale power plants which might be a Concentrating Photovoltaic, Concentrating Solar Power or High Concentration Photovoltaic power plants.
What is "Net Zero Energysm?"
Net
Zero Energysm - when applied to a home or commercial building, simply means that
the home or buildings generates as much power and energy as they consume, when measured on a
monthly or annual basis, and with an onsite, renewable energy system, such as
our
Solar Trigenerationsm
Energy
System.
Solar
Trigenerationsm
www.SolarTrigeneration.com
Now, Your
Business Can Have Our Solar Trigeneration™
Energy System, installed for No
Up-Front Costs!
Through an affiliated partner company, we are now installing our Solar Trigeneration™ Energy Systems, for qualified commercial businesses, nationwide, with Zero up-front costs.
Some customers may even see a decrease in their energy expenses by as much as 10% to 20% with our Zero up-front cost Solar Trigeneration™ Energy System!
To qualify for our no up-front cost Solar Trigeneration Energy Systems, businesses must:
Have a good credit rating
Agree to buy all of the energy generated from the Solar Trigeneration™ Energy System through a 20 year Power Purchase Agreement
Other conditions may apply, depending on location, state or utility company you are presently buying power from.
We expect ALL of our customers will be very happy knowing that the clean, green, renewable power they are using is:
More reliable than the electricity from the power company.
Saving the environment by reducing Greenhouse Gas Emissions and helping reverse Climate Change and Global Warming.
Generated from their own reliable Solar Power System on their roofs.
Saving Money! At today's published electric rates at Southern California Edison, TXU, Reliant and Centerpoint, most of our customers will also enjoy a SAVINGS on their present electric bills by as much as 10% from what they are now paying for their electricity from the electric utility.
Under warranty.
At the end of the Power Purchase Agreement, the Solar Trigeneration™ Energy System is then offered for sale to our customers, for $1.00. And then their energy savings really start to add up as the power and electricity generated from their Solar Trigeneration™ Energy System is free!
Solar
Trigenerationsm
is Here!
Solar Trigeneration Provides (almost)
Any Building - with all of its
Cooling, Heating & Power Requirements. Solar
Trigenerationsm
is also the Greenest Way to
Cool, Heat and Power your Facility -
whether that's a Hospital, Data Center, Office Building or University
Campus
Commercial, Industrial & Utility Customers:
Reduce or COMPLETELY ELIMINATE
Your Electric Power & Natural Gas Expenses!
Stop
Paying High Utility Bills to the Electric and Natural Gas Companies!
Let us Show You How You
Can
"Cut the Cord" to the Electric Company!
Our
"Solar
Trigenerationsm" Power and Energy Systems
Generate Carbon Free Energy and
Pollution Free Power
Which is Sustainable, Clean, Renewable and Affordable
Solar Energy Systems provides cooler, cleaner, greener power and energy project development services. Our Solar Energy Systems are an environmentally-friendly and economically-superior choice to expensive natural gas and electricity. Additionally, our renewable energy technologies generate "green tags" or a Renewable Energy Credit.
We
provide
Solar
Power and Energy systems that we refer to as "EcoGeneration"
solutions that produce cooler, cleaner, greener power and energy for our
customers and our environment. Unlike most companies, we are equipment
supplier/vendor neutral. This means we help our clients select the best
equipment for their specific application. This approach provides our
customers with superior performance, decreased operating expenses and
increased return on investment.
Our company provides turn-key project solutions that include all or part
of the following:
Engineering and Economic Feasibility Studies
Project Design, Engineering & Permitting
Project Construction
Project Funding & Financing Options
Shared/Guaranteed Savings program with no capital requirements.
Project Commissioning
Operations & Maintenance
Green Tag/Renewable Energy Credit Application, and Marketing
Net
Zero Energy Buildingssm
www.NetZeroEnergyBuildings.com

The Sun
Powers the Audubon Nature Center's Solar
Trigeneration
System at Debs Park in Los Angeles. The Audubon Nature Center's
building is one of the world's first "Net
Zero Energy Buildings."
The Solar
Trigeneration
System Consists of a 10 Ton "Solar
Absorption Cooling"
System
Matched with a Solar
Electric Power System
By: Monty Goodell, MBA
www.SolarTrigeneration.com
Los Angeles, California
There
is now a better, more efficient, “pollution
free power”
and "carbon
free energy"
solution for cooling, heating and powering homes and commercial
buildings where solar energy is available.
Solar Trigeneration is defined as the simultaneous generation of cooling, heating and power with only the free solar energy from the sun providing the "fuel".
Solar
Trigeneration is now
a reality at the Audubon
The Audubon Nature Center is totally powered by the sun’s energy and our Solar Trigeneration energy system!
The 5,300 square foot building operates entirely “grid-free” and without any electric connections to the electric grid, or natural gas connections – a truly sustainable power and energy solution.
Best
of all, the Audubon Center doesn’t rely on the over-burdened electric
grid or even natural gas. Therefore, the Audubon
Nature Center
NEVER receives an electric bill or
natural gas bill.... ever!
The
Audubon
Nature Center's 5,000 square foot
office and conference facility is powered by a Solar
Trigeneration
system that features a 25-kilowatt solar electric power system where the
energy is stored in a bank of batteries. The Center is cooled by a
10-ton solar
absorption cooling
system powered by an array of very efficient solar heat pipe vacuum tube
thermal collectors. The
collectors heat the water to temperatures of 200+ degree F stored in a
1,200 gallon insulated tank, another type of inexpensive battery. The Solar
Trigeneration
system at the Audubon not only provides the air-conditioning in the
summer but also heats the building in the winter, and provides the hot
water for the kitchen and bathrooms.
Absorption
chillers,
and cooling with solar energy with an absorption chiller are not new
technologies.
In fact, absorption chiller technology is over 70 years old.
The first refrigerators were powered by propane gas to run the
absorption chillers that used ammonia as a refrigerant.
Electricity and the electric compression chiller gained
popularity only because of the convenient “plug and play” appliance
and relatively cheap electric rates.
Electricity is no longer economically, or environmentally “cheap.”
History of Cogeneration and Trigeneration
Few people realize that the world's first commercial power plant, designed and built by Thomas Edison, was a cogeneration power plant that was first opened on Pearl Street, in Lower Manhattan, New York. That was in 1882! Edison not only generated, and sold electricity in the several blocks surrounding his "Pearl Street Station" but he also sold the hot water that was also generated from the cogeneration plant. The fuel Edison used for generating the electricity and hot water (cogeneration) came from "pulverized coal." The Pearl Street Station provided 110 volts of "direct current" power to 59 customers in lower Manhattan, around his Pearl Street laboratory.
Cogeneration is the simultaneous production of heat and power.
Trigeneration is the simultaneous production of cooling, heating and power.
Our company, in partnership with the Renewable Energy Institute and our affiliated partners, have perfected "Solar Cogeneration" and "Solar Trigeneration" which are the "heart" of our Net Zero Energy Buildings.
Unlike traditional cogeneration and trigeneration power plants that are fueled by natural gas - and Thomas Edison's cogeneration plant, which was fueled with pulverized coal, our Solar Cogeneration and Solar Trigeneration energy systems are fueled with the energy of the sun! And, while natural gas is a "cleaner" fuel, it still has its problems in that it is a limited resource and generates greenhouse gas emissions. Natural gas also have had extreme price swings and has a history of price volatility. Natural gas prices have gone from a high of $17.00/mmbtu to a recent low of under $3.00/mmbtu.
Regarding pulverized coal, yes, it's cheap in terms of the cost of generating electricity, but too many people forget about the "externalities" of pulverized coal that is not reflected in the "cheap" costs of generating electricity from pulverized coal. These costs not accounted for are the huge environmental cost relating to the use of pulverized coal. Pound for pound, pulverized coal and coal fired power plants generate more greenhouse gas emissions than any other fossil fuel. There are also the costs related to the health and safety issues of the miners that mine the coal. And, the costs to the environment in terms of the ever-increasing amounts of mercury that are "dumped" into the environment from coal fired power plants, is also not reflected in the "cheap" price of generating power from pulverized coal.
Unlike the problems inherently found with the use of fossil fuels, Solar Cogeneration and Solar Trigeneration have no such problems.
And talk about "cheap" costs of generating power and energy, there is nothing cheaper than free!!!!
The owners of the Audubon Nature Center never receive any monthly natural gas or electric bills!
And the owners of the Audubon Nature Center will never have to account for their greenhouse gas emissions, or comply with the ever-increasing regulations related to greenhouse gas emissions and the pending Cap and Trade laws..... thanks to our Solar Trigeneration energy system!
Solar
Trigeneration
is an EcoGeneration
solution. EcoGeneration
refers to a power and energy system that uses the “natural” energy
or fuel that is available for a specific site or location. Such energy
or fuel includes, solar, wind, BioMethane,
geothermal, and ocean power, including ocean tidal and ocean thermal
energy conversion. For
example, in the desert areas of the
Today,
the cause of the summer peak electric demand, electric supply problems,
and black-outs, are the result of the energy crisis in
Greater
Demands on California’s Limited Electric Supply, Lack of New Electric
Power Supplies, and This Summer’s Heat Wave are Compounding the
Problem Leading to the “Perfect Electric
Storm”
Many
people will remember the movie “The Perfect Storm” from several
years ago, when several storms came together in the northeastern part of
the
The
most likely time of year for a black-out in
How
Do We Prevent the “Perfect Electric Storm” from Occurring
in California and Other Regions in the U.S.?
Another
major concern is how do we prevent the “Perfect Electric Storm” from
happening, like the Northeast Blackout several summers ago, especially
for people living in the desert?
Governor
Schwarzenegger’s “Million Solar Roofs” program and the passage of
the 2005 Federal Energy Act will be the foundation to create a “Perfect Solar
Storm” to trigger the Solar Economy throughout California.
With
the threat of California’s seniors and elderly dying from heat
exhaustion due to power outages, black-outs, rolling black-outs and the
rising costs of electricity and natural gas, combined with the
continuing impact of global warming, the perfect solution is to create a
Solar Revolution by cooling, heating and powering the desert with solar
energy and technologies like Solar
Cogeneration or Solar
Trigeneration.
For
more information about Solar
Energy Systems, such as Solar
Cogeneration or Solar
Trigeneration,
call Monty Goodell at (832) 758 - 0027, or send an email to info@SolarTrigeneration.com.
The Audubon Center's new Solar Trigeneration
power and energy system
makes this building a "Net Zero Energy Building"
The Audubon's Roof showing
the Solar
Thermal Collectors, part of the
Solar Trigeneration
power and energy system
The heart of the Audubon's Solar Trigeneration
power and energy system
provides "free heating, cooling and domestic hot water," a
"net zero energy
building."
The hot water from the Solar Thermal Collectors
on the roof of the Audubon is pumped here for producing the building's
heating, cooling and domestic hot water.
Hot water is stored in the tank on the left for overnight.
What is a Net Zero Energy Buildingsm?
A Net Zero Energy Buildingsm produces as much energy as it uses over the course of a year. Net Zero Energy Buildingssm are very energy efficient. The remaining low energy needs are typically met with on-site renewable energy.
First of all, understand that there is no such thing as a "zero energy building!" EVERY building uses energy, or you may as well be in a cave!
The important considerations are,
1. How efficient is the building?
2. How much energy does the building use, and how efficiently is it used?
3. How much "carbon free energy" or "pollution free power" is generated by the buildings' own onsite renewable energy system?
4. What are
the utility company's prices for the excess power generated and sent to the
grid?
(see: Net Energy Metering)
5. How difficult is it to interconnect the renewable energy system of the building with the utility company's powerlines/electric grid?
At the heart of a Net Zero Energy Buildingsm is the idea that any building can meet its energy requirements from low-cost, locally available, nonpolluting, renewable sources, like our Solar Trigenerationsm Energy Systems. Our Solar Trigenerationsm Energy Systems are the idea whose time has come, to make Net Zero Energy Buildingssm commonplace.
Solar Trigenerationsm Energy Systems Provide All of the Cooling, Heating & Power, for Any Size Building, with only the Energy of the Sun. Solar Trigenerationsm Energy Systems Provide Simultaneous Cooling, Heating & Power whether it is 12 Noon, or 12 Midnight, and can do so, WITHOUT Connection to the electric grid!
The
Diagram Below Shows How Our Solar
Trigenerationsm Energy System Works,
for Heating and Cooling a Building (next to the Solar Thermal Collectors, are the PV
Panels, that generate the Electricity).

Our
Solar
Trigenerationsm Energy
System
provides
"Cooling, Heating & Power" for your business,
or home with the free energy of the sun!
What is Net Energy Metering?
Net energy metering is used to measure a customer's total electric
consumption against that customer's total on-site electric generation. When
a customer's onsite generation of power exceeds the amount that they use, the customer's
solar energy system (or other renewable energy system) exports the extra electricity to the
grid. When the power requirements of the customer exceeds their onsite
generation of power, the customer imports the electricity they need from
electric grid. The customer pays the electric company for any extra power they
use over the amount they generate - OR - the customer receives a credit or
refund from the electric company if they exported more power to the grid, than
what they consumed.
Much focus is placed on energy efficiency as the most cost-effective way to reduce energy use in commercial buildings. However, consumption can be reduced only so much. There is a point at which the cost of adding efficiency measures is higher than that of using renewable energy such as thin film photovoltaics and other solar energy systems.
Aggressive energy efficiency strategies can reduce a building's energy consumption by 50% to 70%. Renewable energy technologies must be used to reach the goal of a net-zero energy building (NZEB).
Various supply-side renewable energy technologies are available for Net Zero Energy Buildings. Supply-side technologies, often called energy producers, collect natural energy and transform it into a useful form. Examples of these technologies include PV, solar hot water, wind, hydroelectric, and biofuels.
All renewable sources are favorable over conventional energy sources such as coal and natural gas; however, the U.S. Department of Energy recommends the following ranking for these options (the lower numbers are preferable):
|
Option Number |
NZEB Supply-Side Options |
Examples |
|---|---|---|
|
0 |
Reduce site energy use through low-energy building technologies |
Daylighting, high-efficiency heating, ventilation, and air-conditioning equipment (HVAC), natural ventilation, evaporative cooling |
|
On-Site Supply Options |
||
|
1 |
Use renewable energy sources available within the building's footprint |
PV, solar hot water, and wind located on the building |
|
2 |
Use renewable energy sources available at the site |
PV, solar hot water, low-impact hydroelectric, and wind located on-site, but not on the building |
|
Off-Site Supply Options |
||
|
3 |
Use renewable energy sources available off site to generate energy on site |
Biomass, wood pellets, ethanol, or biodiesel that can be imported from off site; waste streams from on-site processes that can be used on-site to generate electricity and heat |
|
4 |
Purchase off-site renewable energy sources |
Utility-based wind, PV, emissions credits, or other "green" purchasing options; hydroelectric is sometimes considered |
This hierarchy is weighted toward renewable technologies within the building
footprint and site. Rooftop PV and solar water heating are the most applicable
supply-side technologies for Net
Zero Energy Buildings. Other supply-side technologies such as parking
lot-based wind or solar energy
systems may be available.
The goal in developing the ranking was to encourage technologies that:
Minimize overall environmental impact by encouraging energy-efficient building designs and reducing transportation and conversion losses
Will be available over the lifetime of the building
Are widely available and have high replication potential for future Net Zero Energy Buildings.
Power Purchase Agreement
www.PowerPurchaseAgreement.com
Our company provides turnkey installations of; Solar Energy Systems - including; Solar Cogeneration, Solar Trigenerationsm and Net Zero Energy Building sm upgrades - that convert brown buildings to green buildings. One of the ways this is accomplished is with a "power purchase agreement."
We work closely with our attorneys and affiliated sources that prepare and promulgate Power Purchase Agreements, Energy Purchase Agreements, Energy Service Agreements for our clients that have our company install, own and operate one of our Solar Energy Systems - including; Solar Cogeneration, Solar Trigenerationsm and Net Zero Energy Building sm energy solutions for their qualified commercial, industrial or municipal businesses, facilities or buildings.
What
is a Power Purchase Agreement?
A Power Purchase Agreement is similar to an Energy
Purchase Agreement or Energy
Service Agreement wherein our clients agree to buy either the power
(electricity) or the power and energy (hot water, steam and/or chilled water for
air-conditioning) directly from us, for a term of 10 to 20 years, where we have
installed, own and operate our cogeneration,
peak-shaving, or trigeneration
energy systems. This may also include our Solar Cogeneration or Solar
Trigeneration energy system.
In
nearly every case, once we have installed our cogeneration,
peak-shaving, or trigeneration
energy system at our client's commercial facility, we can immediately
reduce our (commercial) client's electricity expenses by 10% over what
they were paying for their power electricity from their electric utility.
The
right Power Purchase Agreement or Energy Service Agreement - along with our Demand
Side Management, Peak-Shaving, solar
cogeneration, solar
trigeneration, or one of our other solar
energy systems, may save your company
hundreds of thousands, and possibly millions of dollars over the term of the
agreement. Simultaneously,
having the wrong or poorly drafted PPA or ESA can cost your company thousands or
millions of dollars. You wouldn't consult a brain surgeon to treat your
child's broken bone! Selecting the wrong attorneys, law firm or team to
promulgate or re-negotiate your Power Purchase Agreement can leave you
"powerless" and penniless - and still requiring the skills and
expertise of competent and qualified professionals to resolve the situation.
Because
a Power Purchase Agreement or Energy Service Agreement is at the
"heart" and underlying foundation of our projects, we can help your
business with the selection and oversight of PPA's and ESA's. We are a turnkey developer,
owner and operator of solar energy systems. We can provide design, engineering
and installations of our solar energy systems from as small as
100 kW to well over
10 megawatts.
We can help your city or community create a Municipal Utility District or Public Utility District that may then qualify for our very competitively priced energy and electricity rates. Now is the time for cities, municipal and governmental clients to consider having our company install one of our renewable power and energy systems that will generate "clean" power and energy, lower costs, and avoid the coming electricity shortages and grid congestion problems!
Products and services provided by our company or its partners/affiliates includes the following power and energy project development services:
Project Engineering Feasibility & Economic Analysis Studies
Engineering, Procurement and Construction
Environmental Engineering & Permitting
Project Funding & Financing Options; including Equity Investment, Debt Financing, Lease and Municipal Lease
Shared/Guaranteed Savings Program with No Capital Investment from Qualified Clients
Project Commissioning
3rd Party Ownership and Project Development
Long-term Service Agreements
Operations & Maintenance
Green Tag (Renewable Energy Credit, Carbon Dioxide Credits, Emission Reduction Credits) Brokerage Services; Application and Permitting
More about Power Purchase Agreements
A Power Purchase Agreement is also "behind" almost every power plant. A PPA is a contract involving the generation and sales of electricity - which is normally developed between the owner of a power plant generating the electricity, and the buyer of the electricity. PPA's can be quite lengthy agreements that may exceed 100 pages in length and take several months to even 1-2 years to finalize.
The
basic information contained in a Power Purchase Agreement include the
following items:
* Definitions
* Purchase and
Sale of Contracted Capacity and Energy (such as steam, hot
water and/or chilled water in the case of cogeneration and trigeneration
plants
* Operation of
the Power Plant
* Financing of
the Power Plant
* Guarantees of
Performance
* Penalties
* Payments
* Force Majeure
* Default and
Early Termination
* Miscellaneous
* T&C's
For more information about Power Purchase Agreements and Energy Service Agreements, call or e-mail us today. Tel. (832) 758 - 0027
What is "Copper Indium Gallium Diselenide?"
Copper Indium Gallium diSelenide (CuInSe2) is a material that provides an extremely high absorption of light ( 99%) to be absorbed in the first micron of the material. Copper Indium Gallium diSelenide is projected to be the revolutionary material that some are saying, could put typical "central" power plants and some electric utilities, out of business, as it will be much cheaper for customers to generate their own onsite power with Thin Film Photovoltaics made from these materials.
When additional small amounts of Gallium is added to Copper Indium diSelenide, this increases its' light-absorbing band gap, thereby making the solar panel more closely match the solar spectrum of the sun. This, in turn, increases the voltage and the efficiency of the Thin Film Photovoltaics solar panel.
Solar panels produced with Copper Indium Gallium diSelenide cells have reached efficiencies of more than 20% - which is much higher than the other Thin Film Photovoltaics.
Copper Indium Gallium diSelenide solar panels create more electricity from the same amount of sunlight than other Thin Film Photovoltaics panels. This translates into a higher conversion efficiency.
The conversion efficiency of Copper Indium Gallium diSelenide PV technologies is very stable over time, meaning its power output remains stable over many years, while the power output of many other PV materials can rapidly decline with time.
What are "Building Integrated Photovoltaics?"
Building Integrated Photovoltaics (BIPV) are solar energy systems that are integrated into a part of the building, that serve as the building's exterior or the building's skin.
Commercial buildings and facilities (including houses) that integrate their own solar power systems into the building's exteriors, are referred to as "power buildings."
The technology that makes this possible is "Thin Film Photovoltaics."
What are Thin Film Photovoltaics?
Without a doubt, the most exciting technology in the solar power industry is "Thin Film Photovoltaics." Thin Film Photovoltaics technology represents the next big thing in renewable energy and solar power as it integrates nanotechnologies into the production of solar photovoltaics.
According to the Department of Energy, the recent technological advances in thin film photovoltaics make this a very exciting time to be in the solar energy industry. These advances have led to many new developments in the components and manufacturing of thin film photovoltaics. This has made thin film photovoltaics cheaper to manufacture as they are also now easier to install since they are extremely versatile, flexible, bendable, and much lighter.
Thin film photovoltaics have led many to believe that as much as 50% of our nation's future power will be generated by "power buildings" that integrate "building integrated photovoltaics" or "BIPV" into the building's skin or exterior surfaces, that convert sunlight into "pollution free power" for use in the building. This also designates these buildings (and homes) as "Net Zero Energy Buildings" and make the option for going grid-free, or not connecting to the grid, a real possibility.
According to the Department of Energy, the market potential for printed electronics will grow into a $47 billion market by 2018. Thin film photovoltaics represents a significant portion of this market - and based on this heavily researched solar technology, thin film photovoltaics now represents a $20 billion/year industry in the U.S.
The solar PV panels produced under the thin film photovoltaics umbrella have the potential to produce power significantly cheaper power than today’s typical silicon-based PV panels. The panels are usually made in the form of a monolithic piece of glass, upon which various thin films are deposited, although a number of firms are working on depositing the materials on a substrate, such as stainless steel or plastic.
Types of Thin Film Photovoltaics – there are primarily three types of thin film photovoltaics and include:
Amorphous Silicon
Cadmium Telluride
Amorphous Silicon had the largest share of the thin film photovoltaics market through 2006. It has been researched for the longest period of time, may be the best understood material of the three and has been commercial for the longest. Cadmium Telluride has the remaining share and is growing.
Thin Film Photovoltaics Advantages over Crystalline Silicon Photovoltaics
Lower cost of production of the
Lower production facility cost per watt - CapEx
Uses as little as 1/500 of the amount used in standard silicon cells
Lower energy payback – amount of time until the product produces more energy than was utilized in its manufacture.
Produces more power/watt
Superior performance in hot and cloudy climates
Integrates seemlessly in homes and buildings – see Building Integrated Photovoltaics
Produces the lowest cost power
Absorption Chillers
&
Adsorption Chillers
For Solar Trigeneration Applications
Absorption
chillers use heat instead of mechanical energy to provide cooling. A
thermal compressor consists of an absorber, a generator, a pump, and a
throttling device, and replaces the mechanical vapor compressor.
In
the chiller, refrigerant vapor from the evaporator is absorbed by a
solution mixture in the absorber. This solution is then pumped to the
generator. There the refrigerant re-vaporizes using a waste steam heat
source. The refrigerant-depleted solution then returns to the absorber via
a throttling device. The two most common refrigerant/ absorbent mixtures
used in absorption chillers are water/lithium bromide and ammonia/water.
Compared
with mechanical chillers, absorption chillers have a low coefficient of
performance (COP = chiller load/heat input). However, absorption chillers
can substantially reduce operating costs because they are powered by
low-grade waste heat. Vapor compression chillers, by contrast, must be
motor- or engine-driven.
Low-pressure,
steam-driven absorption chillers are available in capacities ranging from
100 to 1,500 tons. Absorption chillers come in two commercially available
designs: single-effect and double-effect. Single-effect machines provide a
thermal COP of 0.7 and require about 18 pounds of
15-pound-per-square-inch-gauge (psig) steam per ton-hour of cooling.
Double-effect machines are about 40% more efficient, but require a higher
grade of thermal input, using about 10 pounds of 100- to 150-psig steam
per ton-hour.
A
single-effect absorption machine means all condensing heat cools and
condenses in the condenser. From there it is released to the cooling
water. A double-effect machine adopts a higher heat efficiency of
condensation and divides the generator into a high-temperature and a
low-temperature generator.
Is an Absorption Chiller or a Geothermal
Heat Pump the Best Choice for You?
You have a combined
heat and power CHP) unit and cannot use all of the available heat, or
if you are considering a new CHP plant
Waste heat is
available
A low-cost source
of fuels is available
Your boiler
efficiency is low due to a poor load factor
Your site has an
electrical load limit that will be expensive to upgrade
Your site needs
more cooling, but has an electrical load limitation that is expensive
to overcome, and you have an adequate supply of heat.
In
short, absorption cooling may fit when a source of free or low-cost heat
is available, or if objections exist to using conventional refrigeration.
Essentially, the low-cost heat source displaces higher-cost electricity in
a conventional chiller.
In
Practice
In a plant where low-pressure steam is currently being vented to the
atmosphere, a mechanical chiller with a COP of 4.0 is used 4,000 hours a
year to produce an average 300 tons of refrigeration. The plant's cost of
electricity is $0.05 a kilowatt-hour.
An absorption unit requiring 5,400 lbs/hr of 15-psig steam could replace
the mechanical chiller, providing annual electrical cost savings of:
Annual
Savings = 300 tons x (12,000 Btu/ton / 4.0) x 4,000 hrs/yr x $0.05/kWh x
kWh/3,413 Btu = $52,740
Actions You Can Take
Determine
the cost-effectiveness of displacing a portion of your cooling load with a
waste steam absorption chiller by taking the following steps:
Conduct a plant
survey to identify sources and availability of waste steam
Determine cooling
load requirements and the cost of meeting those requirements with
existing mechanical chillers or new installations
Obtain installed
cost quotes for a waste steam absorption chiller
Conduct a life
cycle cost analysis to determine if the waste steam absorption chiller
meets your company's cost-effectiveness criteria.
The basic cooling cycle is the same for the absorption and electric chillers. Both systems use a low-temperature liquid refrigerant that absorbs heat from the water to be cooled and converts to a vapor phase (in the evaporator section). The refrigerant vapors are then compressed to a higher pressure (by a compressor or a generator), converted back into a liquid by rejecting heat to the external surroundings (in the condenser section), and then expanded to a low- pressure mixture of liquid and vapor (in the expander section) that goes back to the evaporator section and the cycle is repeated.
The basic difference between the electric chillers and absorption chillers is that an electric chiller uses an electric motor for operating a compressor used for raising the pressure of refrigerant vapors and an absorption chiller uses heat for compressing refrigerant vapors to a high-pressure. The rejected heat from the power-generation equipment (e.g. turbines, microturbines, and engines) may be used with an absorption chiller to provide the cooling in a CHP system.
The basic absorption cycle employs two fluids, the absorbate or refrigerant, and the absorbent. The most commonly fluids are water as the refrigerant and lithium bromide as the absorbent. These fluids are separated and recombined in the absorption cycle. In the absorption cycle the low-pressure refrigerant vapor is absorbed into the absorbent releasing a large amount of heat. The liquid refrigerant/absorbent solution is pumped to a high-operating pressure generator using significantly less electricity than that for compressing the refrigerant for an electric chiller. Heat is added at the high-pressure generator from a gas burner, steam, hot water or hot gases. The added heat causes the refrigerant to desorb from the absorbent and vaporize. The vapors flow to a condenser, where heat is rejected and condense to a high-pressure liquid. The liquid is then throttled though an expansion valve to the lower pressure in the evaporator where it evaporates by absorbing heat and provides useful cooling. The remaining liquid absorbent, in the generator passes through a valve, where its pressure is reduced, and then is recombined with the low-pressure refrigerant vapors returning from the evaporator so the cycle can be repeated.
Absorption chillers are used to generate cold water (44°F) that is circulated to air handlers in the distribution system for air conditioning.
"Indirect-fired" absorption chillers use steam, hot water or hot gases steam from a boiler, turbine or engine generator, or fuel cell as their primary power input. Theses chillers can be well suited for integration into a CHP system for buildings by utilizing the rejected heat from the electric generation process, thereby providing high operating efficiencies through use of otherwise wasted energy.
"Direct-fired" systems contain natural gas burners; rejected heat from these chillers can be used to regenerate desiccant dehumidifiers or provide hot water.
Commercially absorption chillers can be single-effect or multiple-effect. The above schematic refers to a single-effect absorption chiller. Multiple-effect absorption chillers are more efficient and discussed below.
Multiple-Effect Absorption Chillers
In a single-effect absorption chiller, the heat released during the chemical process of absorbing refrigerant vapor into the liquid stream, rich in absorbent, is rejected to the environment. In a multiple-effect absorption chiller, some of this energy is used as the driving force to generate more refrigerant vapor. The more vapor generated per unit of heat or fuel input, the greater the cooling capacity and the higher the overall operating efficiency.
A double-effect chiller uses two generators paired with a single condenser, absorber, and evaporator. It requires a higher temperature heat input to operate and therefore they are limited in the type of electrical generation equipment they can be paired with when used in a CHP System.
Triple-effect chillers can achieve even higher efficiencies than the double-effect chillers. These chillers require still higher elevated operating temperatures that can limit choices in materials and refrigerant/absorbent pairs. Triple-effect chillers are under development by manufacturers working in cooperation with the U.S. Department of Energy.
About
Us
We provide our clients with comprehensive energy
master planning solutions that lead to complete reduction or elimination of
expensive energy expenses and greenhouse gas emissions.
We install solar energy systems,
including Solar Water Heating
Systems, Solar Electric
Power Systems, Solar Heating
and Cooling systems as well as our Solar
Trigeneration energy systems, nationwide. We also help our clients
transform their "brown buildings" to "green buildings" with
our Net Zero Energy solutions, that
ultimately provides our clients with a Net
Zero Energy Building.
Our clients benefit from our
extensive experience and knowledge of issues relating to renewable energy, solar
energy systems, environmental and sustainability
issues as well as implementing real world solutions that accomplish our client's goals and objectives.
Our products and solutions reduce our clients energy expenses and also their:
Carbon Emissions (www.CarbonEmissions.com)
Carbon Dioxide Emissions (www.CarbonDioxideEmissions.com) and
Greenhouse Gas Emissions (www.GreenhouseGasEmissions.com)
through our Carbon
Free Energy and Pollution Free
Power solutions.
Peak shaving is one of the demand side management solutions that reduces the use peak demand and amount of electricity by commercial and utility customers. Peak-shaving may significantly reduce the peak demand as well as the energy expenses for clients that have implemented a peak-shaving solution.
Also now in our product offerings is a complete line of solar energy systems, including; Evacuated Tube Collectors, Solar Cogeneration, Solar Trigeneration and Solar Water Heating Systems. We can transform your facility into a "Net Zero Energy Building™ and eliminate your greenhouse gas emissions!
We start your company's Energy Master Plan with a "kick-off" meeting and review your facility's past and present power and energy consumption (kWh's and btu's), we then analyze the real cost of power and energy patterns, we develop a baseline, we review your future power and energy requirements, identify power and energy savings opportunities as well as demand side management and energy conservation measures. After your acceptance and agreement with our Energy Master Plan, we can help implement those specific projects and opportunities we discovered to insure the implementation and success of our Energy Master Plan's suggestions. Afterward, our solutions will incorporate an energy and power software/energy management system that tracks and continually monitors "our" success in reducing your power and energy expenses.
We provide renewable energy engineering services and turnkey installations of our solar energy systems for commercial, municipal, government, schools and utility clients with projects located in the U.S., Canada Central America and the Caribbean.
In many cases, we may also be able to provide project finance or investment.
Our products, resources, services and technologies include:
Carbon Dioxide Emissions Consulting
Carbon Emissions Consulting & Solutions
Greenhouse Gas Emissions consulting
Renewable Energy Credit consulting
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Electric
Utility Demand Side Management Actual
Peak Reduction - The actual reduction in annual peak load (measured in
kilowatts) achieved by consumers that participate in a utility DSM program. It
reflects the changes in the demand for electricity resulting from a utility
DSM program that is in effect at the same time the utility experiences its
annual peak load, as opposed to the installed peak load reduction capability
(i.e., Potential Peak Reduction). It should account for the regular cycling of
energy efficient units during the period of annual peak load. What
are Greenhouse Gas Emissions? Greenhouse
Gas Emissions are those greenhouse gases that allow sunlight to enter the
atmosphere freely and contribute to the greenhouse effect, which many believe
is the cause of global warming. There are natural and man-made greenhouse gas
emissions. The primary greenhouse gases thought to be major contributors
to global warming are; carbon dioxide emissions (CO2), methane emissions (CH 4) and
nitrogen oxides (N2O). The
primary sources of greenhouse gas emissions from manmade sources include;
fossil-fueled power plants such as natural gas power plants and coal fired
power plants. Other sources of greenhouse gas emissions linked to manmade
causes include internal combustion engines (fueled by gasoline and
petroleum diesel) and deforestation. Many
people don't realize that as much as 25% of per cent of the carbon dioxide emissions are
naturally absorbed by the ocean and another 25% of the carbon dioxide
emissions are absorbed by our biosphere, such as trees, plants, soil,
etc. This leaves about 50% of the carbon dioxide emissions that are not
absorbed and remaining in our atmosphere. As previously stated, carbon dioxide emissions
are linked primarily to the burning of fossil fuels (power plants, cars,
trucks, etc.) and deforestation. Greenhouse
gas emissions have been on the increase ever since the dawn of the industrial
revolution. What
Are Greenhouse Gases? Many
gases exhibit these “greenhouse” properties. Some of them occur in nature
(water vapor, carbon dioxide, methane, and nitrous oxide), while others are
exclusively human-made (like gases used for aerosols). Why
Are Atmospheric Levels Increasing? Levels
of several important greenhouse gases have increased by about 25 percent since
large-scale industrialization began around 150 years ago (Figure 1). During the
past 20 years, about three-quarters of human-made carbon
dioxide emissions were from burning fossil fuels. Figure
1. Trends in Atmospheric Concentrations and Anthropogenic Emissions of Carbon
Dioxide Figure
2. Global Carbon Cycle (Billion Metric Tons Carbon) What
Effect Do Greenhouse Gases Have on Climate Change? Given
the natural variability of the Earth’s climate, it is difficult to determine
the extent of change that humans cause. In computer-based models, rising
concentrations of greenhouse gases generally produce an increase in the average
temperature of the Earth. Rising temperatures may, in turn, produce changes in
weather, sea levels, and land use patterns, commonly referred to as “climate
change.” Assessments
generally suggest that the Earth’s climate has warmed over the past century
and that human activity affecting the atmosphere is likely an important driving
factor. A National Research Council study dated May 2001 stated, “Greenhouse
gases are accumulating in Earth’s atmosphere as a result of human activities,
causing surface air temperatures and sub-surface ocean temperatures to rise.
Temperatures are, in fact, rising. The changes observed over the last several
decades are likely mostly due to human activities, but we cannot rule out that
some significant part of these changes is also a reflection of natural
variability.” However,
there is uncertainty in how the climate system varies naturally and reacts to
emissions of greenhouse gases. Making progress in reducing uncertainties in
projections of future climate will require better awareness and understanding of
the buildup of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere and the behavior of the
climate system. In
the U.S., our greenhouse gas emissions come mostly from energy use. These are
driven largely by economic growth, fuel used for electricity generation, and
weather patterns affecting heating and cooling needs. Energy-related carbon
dioxide emissions, resulting from petroleum and natural gas, represent 82
percent of total U.S. human-made greenhouse gas emissions (Figure 3). The
connection between energy use and carbon dioxide emissions is explored in the
box on the reverse side (Figure 4). Figure
4. U.S. Primary Energy Consumption and Carbon Dioxide Emissions, 2001 Another
greenhouse gas, methane, comes from landfills, coal mines, oil and gas
operations, and agriculture; it represents 9 percent of total emissions. Nitrogen
oxides (5 percent of total emissions), meanwhile, is emitted from burning
fossil fuels and through the use of certain fertilizers and industrial
processes. Human-made gases (2 percent of total emissions) are released as
byproducts of industrial processes and through leakage. What
Is the Prospect for Future Emissions? World
carbon dioxide emissions are expected to increase by 1.9 percent annually
between 2001 and 2025 (Figure 5). Much of the increase in these emissions is
expected to occur in the developing world where emerging economies, such as
China and India, fuel economic development with fossil energy. Developing
countries’ emissions are expected to grow above the world average at 2.7
percent annually between 2001 and 2025; and surpass emissions of industrialized
countries near 2018. Figure
5. World Carbon Dioxide Emissions by Region, 2001-2025 The
U.S. produces about 25 percent of global carbon dioxide emissions from burning
fossil fuels; primarily because our economy is the largest in the world and we
meet 85 percent of our energy needs through burning fossil fuels. The U.S. is
projected to lower its carbon intensity by 25 percent from 2001 to 2025, and
remain below the world average (Figure 6). Figure
6. Carbon Intensity by Region, 2001-2025
(Metric Tons of Carbon Equivalent per Million $1997) Energy
Production and Carbon Dioxide
Emissions Co/trigeneration
slashes carbon dioxide emissions
by as much 80% and more. Integrated
systems for cooling, heating and power (CHP) for buildings incorporate multiple
technologies for providing energy services to a single building or to a campus
of buildings. Electricity to such buildings is provided by on-site or near-site
power generators using one or more of the many options: internal combustion (IC)
engines, combustion turbines, miniturbines or microturbines, and fuel cells. In CHP
systems, waste heat from
power generation equipment is recovered for operating equipment for cooling,
heating, or controlling humidity in buildings, by using absorption chillers,
desiccant dehumidifiers, or heat recovery equipment for producing steam or hot
water. These integrated systems are known by a variety of acronyms: CHP,
Trigeneration and IES (Integrated
Energy System). A
CHP System is an efficient, environmentally-friendly "cogeneration"
system that provides power (electricity) and energy (hot water and/or steam) at
the location the power and energy are needed also known as "distributed
generation." Cogeneration systems are at least two times more efficient
than typical power plants which average about 27% - 35% efficiency - meaning 65%
to 73% of the energy is wasted. What
is a CHP System with Absorption Chillers or "Trigeneration"? Even
more efficient than a standard CHP system is a CHP system that incorporates
absorption chillers, which is then a "trigeneration" system,
also referred to as an "Integrated Energy System" or "Cooling,
Heating and Power." Trigeneration systems can be up to 50% more
efficient than cogeneration systems and many average about 90% or more
efficiency. Absorption chillers recover the additional waste heat from CHP
Systems to make chilled water for air-conditioning, thereby providing the
building or facility's electricity, hot water/steam and air conditioning. Some
of the above information courtesy of the U.S. Department of Energy, U.S.
Environmental Protection Agency and the U.S. Department of Agriculture with our
thanks.
Glossary of Terms
Annual Effects - The total changes in energy use (measured in megawatt
hours) and peak load (measured in kilowatts) caused by all participants in
your DSM programs. This includes new and existing participants in existing
programs (those implemented in prior years that are in place during the given
year), all participants in new programs (those implemented during the given
year), and participants in DSM programs that were terminated after 1992.
Please note that Annual Effects are not a summation of 12 monthly peaks or the
aggregate of the Incremental Effects for the reporting year, but are the total
effects of all DSM programs for all participants (new and existing) for the
year.
Direct Load Control - DSM program activities that can interrupt
consumer load at the time of annual peak load by direct control of the utility
system operator by interrupting power supply to individual appliances or
equipment on consumer premises. This type of control usually involves
residential consumers. Direct Load Control as defined here excludes
Interruptible Load and Other Load Management effects.
Energy Effects - The changes in aggregate electricity use (measured in
mega watt hours) for consumers that participate in a utility DSM program.
Energy Effects represent changes at the consumer's meter (i.e., exclude
transmission and distribution effects) and reflect only activities that are
undertaken specifically in response to utility-administered programs,
including those activities implemented by third parties under contract to the
utility. To the extent possible, Energy Effects should exclude non-program
related effects such as changes in energy usage attributable to
non-participants, government-mandated energy-efficiency standards that
legislate improvements in building and appliance energy usage, changes in
consumer behavior that result in greater energy use after initiation in a DSM
program, the natural operations of the marketplace, and weather and
business-cycle adjustments.
Energy Efficiency - DSM programs that are aimed at reducing the energy
used by specific end- use devices and systems, typically without affecting the
services provided. These programs reduce overall electricity consumption
(reported in mega watt hours), often without explicit consideration for the
timing of program-induced savings. Such savings are generally achieved by
substituting technologically more advanced equipment to produce the same level
of end-use services (e.g., lighting, heating, motor drive) with less
electricity. Examples include energy saving appliances and lighting programs,
high-efficiency heating, ventilating and air conditioning (HVAC) systems or
control modifications, efficient building design, advanced electric motor
drives, and heat recovery systems.
Incremental Effects - The annual changes in energy use (measured in
mega watt hours) and peak load (measured in kilowatts) caused by new
participants in existing DSM programs and all participants in new DSM programs
during a given year. Reported Incremental Effects are annualized to indicate
the program effects that would have occurred had these participants been
initiated into the program on January 1 of the given year. Incremental effects
are not simply the Annual Effects of a given year minus the Annual Effects of
the prior year, since these net effects would fail to account for program
attrition, equipment degradation, building demolition, and participant
dropouts. Please note that Incremental Effects are not a monthly disaggregate
of the Annual Effects, but are the total year's effects of only the new
participants and programs for that year.
Interruptible Load - DSM program activities that, in accordance with
contractual arrangements, can interrupt consumer load at times of seasonal
peak load by direct control of the utility system operator or by action of the
consumer at the direct request of the system operator. This type of control
usually involves commercial and industrial consumers. In some instances, the
load reduction may be affected by direct action of the system operator (remote
tripping) after notice to the consumer in accordance with contractual
provisions.
Load Shape - a method of describing peak load demand and the
relationship of power supplied to the time of occurrence.
Other Load Management - DSM programs other than Direct Load Control and
Interruptible Load that limit or shift peak load from on-peak to off-peak time
periods. It includes technologies that primarily shift all or part of a load
from one time-of-day to another and secondarily may have an impact on energy
consumption. Examples include space heating and water heating storage systems,
cool storage systems, and load limiting devices in energy management systems.
This category also includes programs that aggressively promote time-of-use (TOU)
rates and other innovative rates such as real time pricing. These rates are
intended to reduce consumer bills and shift hours of operation of equipment
from on-peak to off-peak periods through the application of
time-differentiated rates.
Potential Peak Reduction - The potential annual peak load reduction
(measured in kilowatts) that can be deployed from Direct Load Control,
Interruptible Load, Other Load Management, and Other DSM Program activities.
(Please note that Energy Efficiency and Load Building are not included in
Potential Peak Reduction.) It represents the load that can be reduced either
by the direct control of the utility system operator or by the consumer in
response to a utility request to curtail load. It reflects the installed load
reduction capability, as opposed to the Actual Peak Reduction achieved by
participants, during the time of annual system peak load.
Program Cost - Utility costs that reflect the total cash expenditures
for the year, reported in nominal dollars, that flowed out to support DSM
programs. They are reported in the year they are incurred, regardless of when
the actual effects occur.
Background
Demand-side management (DSM) programs consist of the planning, implementing,
and monitoring activities of electric utilities which are designed to
encourage consumers to modify their level and pattern of electricity usage.
In the past, the primary objective of most DSM programs was to provide
cost-effective energy and capacity resources to help defer the need for new
sources of power, including generating facilities, power purchases, and
transmission and distribution capacity additions. However, due to changes that
are occurring within the industry, electric utilities are also using DSM as a
way to enhance customer service. DSM refers to only energy and load-shape
modifying activities that are undertaken in response to utility-administered
programs. It does not refer to energy and load-shape changes arising from the
normal operation of the marketplace or from government-mandated
energy-efficiency standards.
Additional Historical DSM Information
In 1997, 971 electric utilities reported having DSM programs. Of these, 561
are classified as large and 410 are classified as small utilities. The 561
large utilities account for 89.5 percent of the total retail sales of
electricity in the United States.(1)
Energy savings for the 561 large electric utilities decreased to 56,406
million kilowatthours (kWh), 5,436 million kWh less than in 1996. These energy
savings represent 1.8 percent of annual electric sales of 3,140 billion kWh to
ultimate consumers in 1997.
Actual peak load reductions, the goal of the DSM program, for large utilities
was 15.4 percent lower in 1997, at 25,284 megawatts, than in 1996. Potential
peak load reductions were 14.7 percent lower in 1997 than in 1996.
DSM costs continued to decrease from $1.9 billion in 1996 to $1.6 billion in
1997.(2) This is the fourth consecutive year that DSM costs have decreased
from a high of $2.7 billion in 1993.
For 1997, incremental energy savings for large utilities were 4,832 million
kilowatthours, and incremental actual peak load reductions were 2,326
megawatts.
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------
1. Large utilities are those reporting sales to ultimate consumers or sales
for resale greater than or equal to 120,000 mega watt hours. Small utilities
with sales to ultimate consumers and sales for resale of less than 120,000
mega watt hours are only required to report incremental energy savings and
peak load reduction, and total utility and total DSM costs for the reporting
year and for the first forecast year.
2. It is tempting, but misleading, to compare DSM costs to supply-side
investments on an unadjusted cost-per-kilowatt hours or cost-per-kilowatt
basis. The calculation of appropriate measures for economic comparisons of DSM
and supply-side investments requires that consideration of the life-cycle cost
of the options being compared be addressed on an integrated basis (i.e., the
interaction of the change in end-use patterns with the production function of
the utility must be considered over the expected life of the various options
being compared). In addition, the rate impacts of each alternative must be
compared because alternative DSM/supply-side combinations may result in
differing patterns of revenue requirements over time. The data presented are
not sufficient to allow for such comparison.
Many chemical compounds found in the Earth’s atmosphere act as “greenhouse
gases.” These gases allow sunlight to enter the atmosphere freely. When
sunlight strikes the Earth’s surface, some of it is reflected back towards
space as infrared radiation (heat). Greenhouse gases absorb this infrared
radiation and trap the heat in the atmosphere. Over time, the amount of energy
sent from the sun to the Earth’s surface should be about the same as the
amount of energy radiated back into space, leaving the temperature of the
Earth’s surface roughly constant.
Concentrations of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere are naturally regulated by
numerous processes collectively known as the “carbon cycle” (Figure 2). The
movement (“flux”) of carbon between the atmosphere and the land and oceans
is dominated by natural processes, such as plant photosynthesis. While these
natural processes can absorb some of the net 6.1 billion metric tons of
anthropogenic carbon dioxide emissions produced each year (measured in carbon
equivalent terms), an estimated 3.2 billion metric tons is added to the
atmosphere annually. The Earth’s positive imbalance between emissions and
absorption results in the continuing growth in greenhouse gases in the
atmosphere.

What Are the Sources of Greenhouse Gases?
(Million Metric Tons of Carbon Equivalent) 

(Million Metric Tons of Carbon Equivalent)

For over one hundred years, energy and power production have been generated
around the world through the burning of fossil fuels, including; fuel oil,
coal, diesel, and natural gas. Over the past decade, environmental science
and research has discovered and linked global warming, and global climate change
to the carbon dioxide emissions
from the combustion of fossil fuels. This has placed an increased need to
reduce energy consumption and discover more environmentally friendly fuel
sources.
Cogeneration and trigeneration
refers to the simultaneous production of electricity and thermal energy at the same
time, with one fuel input and combustion process (such as natural gas) and is an
environmentally-friendlier method of generating electricity. Cogeneration,
at about 60% to 70% efficiency, is about double the efficiency of typical power
plants. Trigeneration, at around 90% efficiency, is about 300% more
efficient than typical power plants, and 50% more efficient than cogeneration
plants. Cogeneration and trigeneration
power plants are much less expensive and costly in terms of both economic and
environmental expenses, than traditional forms of power generation. There
are also far fewer carbon and carbon
dioxide emissions generated through co/trigeneration.
*
A New Perspective on Energy
CHP systems provide many benefits, including:
reduced energy costs,
improved power reliability,
increased energy efficiency, and
improved environmental quality.
What is a CHP System?
WE PROVIDE CARBON EMISSIONS
TRADING & CONSULTING SERVICES, INCLUDING:
Assigned Amount Units
Cap and Trade
Carbon Credits
Carbon Dioxide Credits
Carbon Dioxide Emissions
Carbon Emissions
Carbon Offset Projects
Carbon Trading
Clean Development Mechanism
Emission Abatement
Emission Reduction Units
Emissions Trading
European Emissions Trading
Greenhouse Gas Emissions
Greenhouse Gas Emissions Trading
Kyoto Protocol Compliant Solutions
Nitrogen Oxides
Renewable Energy Credits
Renewable Energy Project Development
Sulfur Dioxide
Verified Emission Reductions
For project consulting or more information,
Tel. (832)758-0027
email: info@CarbonEmissions.com
According to
the United Nations: "It
is estimated that Greenhouse Gas
Emissions trading markets could be worth $2 Trillion by 2012."
http://www.unep.org/Documents.Multilingual/Default.asp?DocumentID=433&ArticleID=4792&l=en
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the Cord!
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"dirty," inefficient & EXPENSIVE
electricity generated by your electric utility
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and " Pollution Free Power"
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Carbon
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Carbon Dioxide Emissions, or
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Glossary of Terms
What is an Assigned Amount (AA)?
The quantity of greenhouse gases that an Annex I country can release in
accordance with the Kyoto Protocol, during the first commitment period of that
protocol (2008-12).
What is an Assigned Amount Unit (AAU)?
An Assigned Amount Unit (AAU) is a tradable unit of 1 tCO2e.
What are Certified Emission Reductions (CERs)?
According to the Kyoto Protocol, a Kyoto Protocol unit equal to 1 metric tonne
of CO 2 equivalent. A CER is issued for emission reductions from CDM project
activities. Two special types of CERs called temporary certified emission
reduction (tCERs) and long-term certified emission reductions (lCERs) are issued
for emission removals from forestation and reforestation CDM projects.
What is the Clean Development Mechanism (CDM)?
The Clean Development Mechanism is provided by Article 12 of the Kyoto Protocol,
designed to assist developing countries in achieving sustainable development by
permitting industrialized countries to finance projects for reducing greenhouse
gas emission in developing countries and receive credit for doing so.
What is an Emission Reduction Purchase Agreement (ERPA)?
An Emission Reduction Purchase Agreement
is a binding purchase agreement signed between buyer (of CERs or ERUs) and
seller.
What are Emission Reduction Units (ERUs)?
A unit of emission reductions achieved through a Joint Implementation project.
This unit is equal to one metric ton of carbon dioxide equivalent.
What are Emissions Reductions (ERs)?
Emissions reductions generated by a project that have not undergone a
validation/verification process, but are contracted for purchase.
What is Emissions Trading?
Emissions Trading allows for the
transfer of AAUs across international borders or emission allowances between
companies covered by a Cap and Trade program. However, it is a general term
often used for the three Kyoto mechanisms: JI, CDM and emissions trading.
What is the Emissions Trading Scheme?
The ETS is the largest multi-national, greenhouse gas emissions trading scheme
in the world and is a main pillar of EU climate policy.
What is an ERU?
Emission Reduction Unit.
What is the EU ETS?
European Union Emissions Trading Scheme.
What is an EUA?
European Union Allowance.
What is an European Union Allowances (EUA)?
Materialization of the EU ETS quotas, the tradable unit under the EU ETS. One
EUA represents the right to emit 1 ton of CO2.
What is the European Union Emissions Trading Scheme (EU ETS)
Trading Scheme within the European Union. The first compliance phase is from
2005 to 2007, while the second compliance phase continues from 2008 to 2012.
What is a Renewable Energy
Certificate?
Renewable Energy Certificate (REC) - each REC represents the equivalent of one
megawatt hour of electricity generation from an accredited renewable energy
source.
Biomethane
- The Best of All Renewable Fuels! BIOMETHANE
FACTS 1.
Biomethane
is One of the Most Common and Harmful of All Greenhouse
Gas Emissions.
What is a Verified Emission Reduction (VER)?
A Verified Emission Reduction is a unit of greenhouse gas emission reduction
that has been verified by an independent auditor, but has not yet undergone the
procedures and may not yet have met the requirements for verification,
certification and issuance of CERs (in the case of the CDM) or ERUs (in the case
of JI) under the Kyoto Protocol.
Buyers of VERs assume all carbon-specific policy and regulatory risks (i.e. the
risk that the VERs are not ultimately registered as CERs or ERUs). Buyers
therefore tend to pay a discounted price for VERs, which takes the inherent
regulatory risks into account. VERs are carbon credits which are not certified
under the Kyoto Protocol but which can be used to compensate carbon emissions. 1
VER corresponds to one metric tone of CO2 equivalent.
What is the Voluntary Market?
The Voluntary market is precisely that, a "voluntary" market for
emissions reductions for buyers and sellers of Verified Emission Reductions (VERs),
which seek to manage their emission exposure for non-regulatory purposes.
2. Biomethane
is 21 Times More Harmful to the Climate than Carbon
Dioxide Emissions.
Stated another way, Biomethane
Causes Global Warming and Climate Change to
Increase 21 Times Faster than Carbon
Dioxide Emissions.
3. Biomethane
Is A "Renewable Natural Gas."
4. Biomethane
is One of the Easiest and Most Profitable of all Greenhouse
Gas Emissions
to Recover and Control.
California and Sweden Sign Agreement to
Jointly Develop Biomethane
and Other Renewable Fuels
Thursday, 29
June 2006
Sacramento, California USA and Sweden
In a ceremony held at the Ministry of the Environment in Stockholm,
representatives of the Kingdom of Sweden and the State of California signed an
agreement pledging the two governments and their related industries to work
together to develop bioenergy, with a particular emphasis on Biomethane.
“Through a strong working relationship between its industry and government,
Sweden is showing how bioenergy can be developed in a cost-effective manner
that benefits its economy and environment. We are extremely pleased to have
signed this Memorandum of Understanding (MOU) that will provide a basis for
intensified collaboration between Swedish and California officials to develop
a thriving bioenergy industry in California,” said Joe Desmond,
Undersecretary for the California Resources Agency.
In particular, Sweden has been a global leader in terms of converting biowaste,
largely agricultural material and residues, into usable Biomethane.
This gas is then used to either generate electricity, residential heating, or
as a transportation fuel.
More than 8,000 vehicles in Sweden are powered by a combination of natural gas
and Biomethane.
The vehicles include transit buses, refuse trucks, and more than 10 different
models of passenger cars. There are more than 25 Biomethane
production facilities in Sweden and 65 filling stations. The Swedish Biomethane
industry has been growing at an annual rate of about 20 percent over the last
five years.
According to the Swedish Gas Association, more than 50 percent of the methane
used to power Sweden’s natural gas vehicles now comes from biological
sources, up from 45% last year. Natural gas vehicle sales in Sweden are
increasing at the rate of 25% per annum.
Sweden was motivated to develop its Biomethane
industry because it has no natural gas reserves, to more efficiently manage
its waste, and to meet its obligations under the Kyoto Accord. Since Biomethane
is developed from methane sources that would normally release into the
atmosphere, it’s considered one of the most climate friendly fuels. Methane
(and Biomethane)
is 21 times more reactive as a greenhouse gas than carbon dioxide (CO2).
Sweden is currently meetings its objectives and schedule as outlined in the
Kyoto accord.
Biomethane
is developed by heating up and breaking down biomaterials in an (Anaerobic
Digesters) digester. Among other raw materials, Swedish operators feed
their Anaerobic Digesters with
slaughterhouse waste, swine manure, and even grassy crops. After the materials
breakdown over a 20 day period, technology is then used to remove the
impurities and produce Biomethane.
Once cleaned-up, Biomethane
is 98 percent methane and easily meets the Swedish and California pipeline
standards.
The Memorandum of Understanding can be accessed on the California Resources
Agency Web site: http://resources.ca.gov/press_documents/CaliforniaSwedenBiofuelsMOU.pdf
Thursday, 29
June 2006
Sacramento, California USA and Sweden
In a ceremony held at the Ministry of the Environment in Stockholm,
representatives of the Kingdom of Sweden and the State of California signed an
agreement pledging the two governments and their related industries to work
together to develop bioenergy, with a particular emphasis on Biomethane.
“Through a strong working relationship between its industry and government,
Sweden is showing how bioenergy can be developed in a cost-effective manner
that benefits its economy and environment. We are extremely pleased to have
signed this Memorandum of Understanding (MOU) that will provide a basis for
intensified collaboration between Swedish and California officials to develop
a thriving bioenergy industry in California,” said Joe Desmond,
Undersecretary for the California Resources Agency.
In particular, Sweden has been a global leader in terms of converting biowaste,
largely agricultural material and residues, into usable Biomethane.
This gas is then used to either generate electricity, residential heating, or
as a transportation fuel.
More than 8,000 vehicles in Sweden are powered by a combination of natural gas
and Biomethane.
The vehicles include transit buses, refuse trucks, and more than 10 different
models of passenger cars. There are more than 25 Biomethane
production facilities in Sweden and 65 filling stations. The Swedish Biomethane
industry has been growing at an annual rate of about 20 percent over the last
five years.
According to the Swedish Gas Association, more than 50 percent of the methane
used to power Sweden’s natural gas vehicles now comes from biological
sources, up from 45% last year. Natural gas vehicle sales in Sweden are
increasing at the rate of 25% per annum.
Sweden was motivated to develop its Biomethane
industry because it has no natural gas reserves, to more efficiently manage
its waste, and to meet its obligations under the Kyoto Accord. Since Biomethane
is developed from methane sources that would normally release into the
atmosphere, it’s considered one of the most climate friendly fuels. Methane
(and Biomethane)
is 21 times more reactive as a greenhouse gas than carbon dioxide (CO2).
Sweden is currently meetings its objectives and schedule as outlined in the
Kyoto accord.
Biomethane
is developed by heating up and breaking down biomaterials in an (Anaerobic
Digesters) digester. Among other raw materials, Swedish operators feed
their Anaerobic Digesters with
slaughterhouse waste, swine manure, and even grassy crops. After the materials
breakdown over a 20 day period, technology is then used to remove the
impurities and produce Biomethane.
Once cleaned-up, Biomethane
is 98 percent methane and easily meets the Swedish and California pipeline
standards.
The Memorandum of Understanding can be accessed on the California Resources
Agency Web site: http://resources.ca.gov/press_documents/CaliforniaSwedenBiofuelsMOU.pdf
The Parties to this Protocol,
Being Parties to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change, hereinafter referred to as "the Convention",
In pursuit of the ultimate objective of the Convention as stated in its Article 2,
Recalling the provisions of the Convention,
Being guided by Article 3 of the Convention,
Pursuant to the Berlin Mandate adopted by decision 1/CP.1 of the
Conference of the Parties to the Convention at its first session,
Have agreed as follows:
For the purposes of this Protocol, the definitions contained in Article 1 of the Convention shall apply. In addition:
1. "Conference of the Parties" means the Conference of the Parties to the Convention.
2. "Convention" means the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change, adopted in New York on 9 May 1992.
3. "Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change" means the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change established in 1988 jointly by the World Meteorological Organization and the United Nations Environment Programme.
4. "Montreal Protocol" means the Montreal Protocol on Substances that Deplete the Ozone Layer, adopted in Montreal on 16 September 1987 and as subsequently adjusted and amended.
5. "Parties present and voting" means Parties present and casting an affirmative or negative vote.
6. "Party" means, unless the context otherwise indicates, a Party to this Protocol.
7. "Party included in Annex I" means a Party included in Annex I to the Convention, as may be amended, or a Party which has made a notification under Article 4, paragraph 2(g), of the Convention.
1. Each Party included in Annex I, in achieving its quantified emission limitation and reduction commitments under Article 3, in order to promote sustainable development, shall:
(a) Implement and/or further elaborate policies and measures in accordance with its national circumstances, such as:
(i) Enhancement of energy efficiency in relevant sectors of the national economy;
(ii) Protection and enhancement of sinks and reservoirs of greenhouse gases not controlled by the Montreal Protocol, taking into account its commitments under relevant international environmental agreements; promotion of sustainable forest management practices, afforestation and reforestation;
(iii) Promotion of sustainable forms of agriculture in light of climate change considerations;
(iv) Research on, and promotion, development and increased use of, new and renewable forms of energy, of carbon dioxide sequestration technologies and of advanced and innovative environmentally sound technologies;
(v) Progressive reduction or phasing out of market imperfections, fiscal incentives, tax and duty exemptions and subsidies in all greenhouse gas emitting sectors that run counter to the objective of the Convention and application of market instruments;
(vi) Encouragement of appropriate reforms in relevant sectors aimed at promoting policies and measures which limit or reduce emissions of greenhouse gases not controlled by the Montreal Protocol;
(vii) Measures to limit and/or reduce emissions of greenhouse gases not controlled by the Montreal Protocol in the transport sector;
(viii) Limitation and/or reduction of methane emissions through recovery and use in waste management, as well as in the production, transport and distribution of energy;
(b) Cooperate with other such Parties to enhance the individual and combined effectiveness of their policies and measures adopted under this Article, pursuant to Article 4, paragraph 2(e)(i), of the Convention. To this end, these Parties shall take steps to share their experience and exchange information on such policies and measures, including developing ways of improving their comparability, transparency and effectiveness. The Conference of the Parties serving as the meeting of the Parties to this Protocol shall, at its first session or as soon as practicable thereafter, consider ways to facilitate such cooperation, taking into account all relevant information.
2. The Parties included in Annex I shall pursue limitation or reduction of emissions of greenhouse gases not controlled by the Montreal Protocol from aviation and marine bunker fuels, working through the International Civil Aviation Organization and the International Maritime Organization, respectively.
3. The Parties included in Annex I shall strive to implement policies and measures under this Article in such a way as to minimize adverse effects, including the adverse effects of climate change, effects on international trade, and social, environmental and economic impacts on other Parties, especially developing country Parties and in particular those identified in Article 4, paragraphs 8 and 9, of the Convention, taking into account Article 3 of the Convention. The Conference of the Parties serving as the meeting of the Parties to this Protocol may take further action, as appropriate, to promote the implementation of the provisions of this paragraph.
4. The Conference of the Parties serving as the meeting of the Parties to this Protocol, if it decides that it would be beneficial to coordinate any of the policies and measures in paragraph 1(a) above, taking into account different national circumstances and potential effects, shall consider ways and means to elaborate the coordination of such policies and measures.
1. The Parties included in Annex I shall, individually or jointly, ensure that their aggregate anthropogenic carbon dioxide equivalent emissions of the greenhouse gases listed in Annex A do not exceed their assigned amounts, calculated pursuant to their quantified emission limitation and reduction commitments inscribed in Annex B and in accordance with the provisions of this Article, with a view to reducing their overall emissions of such gases by at least 5 per cent below 1990 levels in the commitment period 2008 to 2012.
2. Each Party included in Annex I shall, by 2005, have made demonstrable progress in achieving its commitments under this Protocol.
3. The net changes in greenhouse gas emissions by sources and removals by sinks resulting from direct human-induced land-use change and forestry activities, limited to afforestation, reforestation and deforestation since 1990, measured as verifiable changes in carbon stocks in each commitment period, shall be used to meet the commitments under this Article of each Party included in Annex I. The greenhouse gas emissions by sources and removals by sinks associated with those activities shall be reported in a transparent and verifiable manner and reviewed in accordance with Articles 7 and 8.
4. Prior to the first session of the Conference of the Parties serving as the meeting of the Parties to this Protocol, each Party included in Annex I shall provide, for consideration by the Subsidiary Body for Scientific and Technological Advice, data to establish its level of carbon stocks in 1990 and to enable an estimate to be made of its changes in carbon stocks in subsequent years. The Conference of the Parties serving as the meeting of the Parties to this Protocol shall, at its first session or as soon as practicable thereafter, decide upon modalities, rules and guidelines as to how, and which, additional human-induced activities related to changes in greenhouse gas emissions by sources and removals by sinks in the agricultural soils and the land-use change and forestry categories shall be added to, or subtracted from, the assigned amounts for Parties included in Annex I, taking into account uncertainties, transparency in reporting, verifiability, the methodological work of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, the advice provided by the Subsidiary Body for Scientific and Technological Advice in accordance with Article 5 and the decisions of the Conference of the Parties. Such a decision shall apply in the second and subsequent commitment periods. A Party may choose to apply such a decision on these additional human-induced activities for its first commitment period, provided that these activities have taken place since 1990.
5. The Parties included in Annex I undergoing the process of transition to a market economy whose base year or period was established pursuant to decision 9/CP.2 of the Conference of the Parties at its second session shall use that base year or period for the implementation of their commitments under this Article. Any other Party included in Annex I undergoing the process of transition to a market economy which has not yet submitted its first national communication under Article 12 of the Convention may also notify the Conference of the Parties serving as the meeting of the Parties to this Protocol that it intends to use an historical base year or period other than 1990 for the implementation of its commitments under this Article. The Conference of the Parties serving as the meeting of the Parties to this Protocol shall decide on the acceptance of such notification.
6. Taking into account Article 4, paragraph 6, of the Convention, in the implementation of their commitments under this Protocol other than those under this Article, a certain degree of flexibility shall be allowed by the Conference of the Parties serving as the meeting of the Parties to this Protocol to the Parties included in Annex I undergoing the process of transition to a market economy.
7. In the first quantified emission limitation and reduction commitment period, from 2008 to 2012, the assigned amount for each Party included in Annex I shall be equal to the percentage inscribed for it in Annex B of its aggregate anthropogenic carbon dioxide equivalent emissions of the greenhouse gases listed in Annex A in 1990, or the base year or period determined in accordance with paragraph 5 above, multiplied by five. Those Parties included in Annex I for whom land-use change and forestry constituted a net source of greenhouse gas emissions in 1990 shall include in their 1990 emissions base year or period the aggregate anthropogenic carbon dioxide equivalent emissions by sources minus removals by sinks in 1990 from land-use change for the purposes of calculating their assigned amount.
8. Any Party included in Annex I may use 1995 as its base year for hydrofluorocarbons, perfluorocarbons and sulphur hexafluoride, for the purposes of the calculation referred to in paragraph 7 above.
9. Commitments for subsequent periods for Parties included in Annex I shall be established in amendments to Annex B to this Protocol, which shall be adopted in accordance with the provisions of Article 21, paragraph 7. The Conference of the Parties serving as the meeting of the Parties to this Protocol shall initiate the consideration of such commitments at least seven years before the end of the first commitment period referred to in paragraph 1 above.
10. Any emission reduction units, or any part of an assigned amount, which a Party acquires from another Party in accordance with the provisions of Article 6 or of Article 17 shall be added to the assigned amount for the acquiring Party.
11. Any emission reduction units, or any part of an assigned amount, which a Party transfers to another Party in accordance with the provisions of Article 6 or of Article 17 shall be subtracted from the assigned amount for the transferring Party.
12. Any certified emission reductions which a Party acquires from another Party in accordance with the provisions of Article 12 shall be added to the assigned amount for the acquiring Party.
13. If the emissions of a Party included in Annex I in a commitment period are less than its assigned amount under this Article, this difference shall, on request of that Party, be added to the assigned amount for that Party for subsequent commitment periods.
14. Each Party included in Annex I shall strive to implement the commitments mentioned in paragraph 1 above in such a way as to minimize adverse social, environmental and economic impacts on developing country Parties, particularly those identified in Article 4, paragraphs 8 and 9, of the Convention. In line with relevant decisions of the Conference of the Parties on the implementation of those paragraphs, the Conference of the Parties serving as the meeting of the Parties to this Protocol shall, at its first session, consider what actions are necessary to minimize the adverse effects of climate change and/or the impacts of response measures on Parties referred to in those paragraphs. Among the issues to be considered shall be the establishment of funding, insurance and transfer of technology.
1. Any Parties included in Annex I that have reached an agreement to fulfil their commitments under Article 3 jointly, shall be deemed to have met those commitments provided that their total combined aggregate anthropogenic carbon dioxide equivalent emissions of the greenhouse gases listed in Annex A do not exceed their assigned amounts calculated pursuant to their quantified emission limitation and reduction commitments inscribed in Annex B and in accordance with the provisions of Article 3. The respective emission level allocated to each of the Parties to the agreement shall be set out in that agreement.
2. The Parties to any such agreement shall notify the secretariat of the terms of the agreement on the date of deposit of their instruments of ratification, acceptance or approval of this Protocol, or accession thereto. The secretariat shall in turn inform the Parties and signatories to the Convention of the terms of the agreement.
3. Any such agreement shall remain in operation for the duration of the commitment period specified in Article 3, paragraph 7.
4. If Parties acting jointly do so in the framework of, and together with, a regional economic integration organization, any alteration in the composition of the organization after adoption of this Protocol shall not affect existing commitments under this Protocol. Any alteration in the composition of the organization shall only apply for the purposes of those commitments under Article 3 that are adopted subsequent to that alteration.
5. In the event of failure by the Parties to such an agreement to achieve their total combined level of emission reductions, each Party to that agreement shall be responsible for its own level of emissions set out in the agreement.
6. If Parties acting jointly do so in the framework of, and together with, a regional economic integration organization which is itself a Party to this Protocol, each member State of that regional economic integration organization individually, and together with the regional economic integration organization acting in accordance with Article 24, shall, in the event of failure to achieve the total combined level of emission reductions, be responsible for its level of emissions as notified in accordance with this Article.
1. Each Party included in Annex I shall have in place, no later than one year prior to the start of the first commitment period, a national system for the estimation of anthropogenic emissions by sources and removals by sinks of all greenhouse gases not controlled by the Montreal Protocol. Guidelines for such national systems, which shall incorporate the methodologies specified in paragraph 2 below, shall be decided upon by the Conference of the Parties serving as the meeting of the Parties to this Protocol at its first session.
2. Methodologies for estimating anthropogenic emissions by sources and removals by sinks of all greenhouse gases not controlled by the Montreal Protocol shall be those accepted by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change and agreed upon by the Conference of the Parties at its third session. Where such methodologies are not used, appropriate adjustments shall be applied according to methodologies agreed upon by the Conference of the Parties serving as the meeting of the Parties to this Protocol at its first session. Based on the work of, inter alia, the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change and advice provided by the Subsidiary Body for Scientific and Technological Advice, the Conference of the Parties serving as the meeting of the Parties to this Protocol shall regularly review and, as appropriate, revise such methodologies and adjustments, taking fully into account any relevant decisions by the Conference of the Parties. Any revision to methodologies or adjustments shall be used only for the purposes of ascertaining compliance with commitments under Article 3 in respect of any commitment period adopted subsequent to that revision.
3. The global warming potentials used to calculate the carbon dioxide
equivalence of anthropogenic emissions by sources and removals by sinks of
greenhouse gases listed in Annex A shall be those accepted by the
Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change and agreed upon by the
Conference of the Parties at its third session. Based on the work of, inter
alia, the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change and advice
provided by the Subsidiary Body for Scientific and Technological Advice,
the Conference of the Parties serving as the meeting of the Parties to
this Protocol shall regularly review and, as appropriate, revise the
global warming potential of each such greenhouse gas, taking fully into
account any relevant decisions by the Conference of the Parties. Any
revision to a global warming potential shall apply only to commitments
under Article 3 in respect of any commitment period adopted subsequent to
that revision.
1. For the purpose of meeting its commitments under Article 3, any Party included in Annex I may transfer to, or acquire from, any other such Party emission reduction units resulting from projects aimed at reducing anthropogenic emissions by sources or enhancing anthropogenic removals by sinks of greenhouse gases in any sector of the economy, provided that:
(a) Any such project has the approval of the Parties involved;
(b) Any such project provides a reduction in emissions by sources, or an enhancement of removals by sinks, that is additional to any that would otherwise occur;
(c) It does not acquire any emission reduction units if it is not in compliance with its obligations under Articles 5 and 7; and
(d) The acquisition of emission reduction units shall be supplemental to domestic actions for the purposes of meeting commitments under Article 3.
2. The Conference of the Parties serving as the meeting of the Parties to this Protocol may, at its first session or as soon as practicable thereafter, further elaborate guidelines for the implementation of this Article, including for verification and reporting.
3. A Party included in Annex I may authorize legal entities to participate, under its responsibility, in actions leading to the generation, transfer or acquisition under this Article of emission reduction units.
4. If a question of implementation by a Party included in Annex I of the requirements referred to in this Article is identified in accordance with the relevant provisions of Article 8, transfers and acquisitions of emission reduction units may continue to be made after the question has been identified, provided that any such units may not be used by a Party to meet its commitments under Article 3 until any issue of compliance is resolved.
1. Each Party included in Annex I shall incorporate in its annual inventory of anthropogenic emissions by sources and removals by sinks of greenhouse gases not controlled by the Montreal Protocol, submitted in accordance with the relevant decisions of the Conference of the Parties, the necessary supplementary information for the purposes of ensuring compliance with Article 3, to be determined in accordance with paragraph 4 below.
2. Each Party included in Annex I shall incorporate in its national communication, submitted under Article 12 of the Convention, the supplementary information necessary to demonstrate compliance with its commitments under this Protocol, to be determined in accordance with paragraph 4 below.
3. Each Party included in Annex I shall submit the information required under paragraph 1 above annually, beginning with the first inventory due under the Convention for the first year of the commitment period after this Protocol has entered into force for that Party. Each such Party shall submit the information required under paragraph 2 above as part of the first national communication due under the Convention after this Protocol has entered into force for it and after the adoption of guidelines as provided for in paragraph 4 below. The frequency of subsequent submission of information required under this Article shall be determined by the Conference of the Parties serving as the meeting of the Parties to this Protocol, taking into account any timetable for the submission of national communications decided upon by the Conference of the Parties.
4. The Conference of the Parties serving as the meeting of the Parties to this Protocol shall adopt at its first session, and review periodically thereafter, guidelines for the preparation of the information required under this Article, taking into account guidelines for the preparation of national communications by Parties included in Annex I adopted by the Conference of the Parties. The Conference of the Parties serving as the meeting of the Parties to this Protocol shall also, prior to the first commitment period, decide upon modalities for the accounting of assigned amounts.
1. The information submitted under Article 7 by each Party included in Annex I shall be reviewed by expert review teams pursuant to the relevant decisions of the Conference of the Parties and in accordance with guidelines adopted for this purpose by the Conference of the Parties serving as the meeting of the Parties to this Protocol under paragraph 4 below. The information submitted under Article 7, paragraph 1, by each Party included in Annex I shall be reviewed as part of the annual compilation and accounting of emissions inventories and assigned amounts. Additionally, the information submitted under Article 7, paragraph 2, by each Party included in Annex I shall be reviewed as part of the review of communications.
2. Expert review teams shall be coordinated by the secretariat and shall be composed of experts selected from those nominated by Parties to the Convention and, as appropriate, by intergovernmental organizations, in accordance with guidance provided for this purpose by the Conference of the Parties.
3. The review process shall provide a thorough and comprehensive technical assessment of all aspects of the implementation by a Party of this Protocol. The expert review teams shall prepare a report to the Conference of the Parties serving as the meeting of the Parties to this Protocol, assessing the implementation of the commitments of the Party and identifying any potential problems in, and factors influencing, the fulfilment of commitments. Such reports shall be circulated by the secretariat to all Parties to the Convention. The secretariat shall list those questions of implementation indicated in such reports for further consideration by the Conference of the Parties serving as the meeting of the Parties to this Protocol.
4. The Conference of the Parties serving as the meeting of the Parties to this Protocol shall adopt at its first session, and review periodically thereafter, guidelines for the review of implementation of this Protocol by expert review teams taking into account the relevant decisions of the Conference of the Parties.
5. The Conference of the Parties serving as the meeting of the Parties to this Protocol shall, with the assistance of the Subsidiary Body for Implementation and, as appropriate, the Subsidiary Body for Scientific and Technological Advice, consider:
(a) The information submitted by Parties under Article 7 and the reports of the expert reviews thereon conducted under this Article; and
(b) Those questions of implementation listed by the secretariat under paragraph 3 above, as well as any questions raised by Parties.
6. Pursuant to its consideration of the information referred to in paragraph 5 above, the Conference of the Parties serving as the meeting of the Parties to this Protocol shall take decisions on any matter required for the implementation of this Protocol.
1. The Conference of the Parties serving as the meeting of the Parties to this Protocol shall periodically review this Protocol in the light of the best available scientific information and assessments on climate change and its impacts, as well as relevant technical, social and economic information. Such reviews shall be coordinated with pertinent reviews under the Convention, in particular those required by Article 4, paragraph 2(d), and Article 7, paragraph 2(a), of the Convention. Based on these reviews, the Conference of the Parties serving as the meeting of the Parties to this Protocol shall take appropriate action.
2. The first review shall take place at the second session of the Conference of the Parties serving as the meeting of the Parties to this Protocol. Further reviews shall take place at regular intervals and in a timely manner.
All Parties, taking into account their common but differentiated responsibilities and their specific national and regional development priorities, objectives and circumstances, without introducing any new commitments for Parties not included in Annex I, but reaffirming existing commitments under Article 4, paragraph 1, of the Convention, and continuing to advance the implementation of these commitments in order to achieve sustainable development, taking into account Article 4, paragraphs 3, 5 and 7, of the Convention, shall:
(a) Formulate, where relevant and to the extent possible, cost-effective national and, where appropriate, regional programmes to improve the quality of local emission factors, activity data and/or models which reflect the socio-economic conditions of each Party for the preparation and periodic updating of national inventories of anthropogenic emissions by sources and removals by sinks of all greenhouse gases not controlled by the Montreal Protocol, using comparable methodologies to be agreed upon by the Conference of the Parties, and consistent with the guidelines for the preparation of national communications adopted by the Conference of the Parties;
(b) Formulate, implement, publish and regularly update national and, where appropriate, regional programmes containing measures to mitigate climate change and measures to facilitate adequate adaptation to climate change:
(i) Such programmes would, inter alia, concern the energy, transport and industry sectors as well as agriculture, forestry and waste management. Furthermore, adaptation technologies and methods for improving spatial planning would improve adaptation to climate change; and
(ii) Parties included in Annex I shall submit information on action under this Protocol, including national programmes, in accordance with Article 7; and other Parties shall seek to include in their national communications, as appropriate, information on programmes which contain measures that the Party believes contribute to addressing climate change and its adverse impacts, including the abatement of increases in greenhouse gas emissions, and enhancement of and removals by sinks, capacity building and adaptation measures;
(c) Cooperate in the promotion of effective modalities for the development, application and diffusion of, and take all practicable steps to promote, facilitate and finance, as appropriate, the transfer of, or access to, environmentally sound technologies, know-how, practices and processes pertinent to climate change, in particular to developing countries, including the formulation of policies and programmes for the effective transfer of environmentally sound technologies that are publicly owned or in the public domain and the creation of an enabling environment for the private sector, to promote and enhance the transfer of, and access to, environmentally sound technologies;
(d) Cooperate in scientific and technical research and promote the maintenance and the development of systematic observation systems and development of data archives to reduce uncertainties related to the climate system, the adverse impacts of climate change and the economic and social consequences of various response strategies, and promote the development and strengthening of endogenous capacities and capabilities to participate in international and intergovernmental efforts, programmes and networks on research and systematic observation, taking into account Article 5 of the Convention;
(e) Cooperate in and promote at the international level, and, where appropriate, using existing bodies, the development and implementation of education and training programmes, including the strengthening of national capacity building, in particular human and institutional capacities and the exchange or secondment of personnel to train experts in this field, in particular for developing countries, and facilitate at the national level public awareness of, and public access to information on, climate change. Suitable modalities should be developed to implement these activities through the relevant bodies of the Convention, taking into account Article 6 of the Convention;
(f) Include in their national communications information on programmes and activities undertaken pursuant to this Article in accordance with relevant decisions of the Conference of the Parties; and
(g) Give full consideration, in implementing the commitments under this Article, to Article 4, paragraph 8, of the Convention.
1. In the implementation of Article 10, Parties shall take into account the provisions of Article 4, paragraphs 4, 5, 7, 8 and 9, of the Convention.
2. In the context of the implementation of Article 4, paragraph 1, of the Convention, in accordance with the provisions of Article 4, paragraph 3, and Article 11 of the Convention, and through the entity or entities entrusted with the operation of the financial mechanism of the Convention, the developed country Parties and other developed Parties included in Annex II to the Convention shall:
(a) Provide new and additional financial resources to meet the agreed full costs incurred by developing country Parties in advancing the implementation of existing commitments under Article 4, paragraph 1(a), of the Convention that are covered in Article 10, subparagraph (a); and
(b) Also provide such financial resources, including for the transfer of technology, needed by the developing country Parties to meet the agreed full incremental costs of advancing the implementation of existing commitments under Article 4, paragraph 1, of the Convention that are covered by Article 10 and that are agreed between a developing country Party and the international entity or entities referred to in Article 11 of the Convention, in accordance with that Article.
The implementation of these existing commitments shall take into account the need for adequacy and predictability in the flow of funds and the importance of appropriate burden sharing among developed country Parties. The guidance to the entity or entities entrusted with the operation of the financial mechanism of the Convention in relevant decisions of the Conference of the Parties, including those agreed before the adoption of this Protocol, shall apply mutatis mutandis to the provisions of this paragraph.
3. The developed country Parties and other developed Parties in Annex II to the Convention may also provide, and developing country Parties avail themselves of, financial resources for the implementation of Article 10, through bilateral, regional and other multilateral channels.
1. A clean development mechanism is hereby defined.
2. The purpose of the clean development mechanism shall be to assist Parties not included in Annex I in achieving sustainable development and in contributing to the ultimate objective of the Convention, and to assist Parties included in Annex I in achieving compliance with their quantified emission limitation and reduction commitments under Article 3.
3. Under the clean development mechanism:
(a) Parties not included in Annex I will benefit from project activities resulting in certified emission reductions; and
(b) Parties included in Annex I may use the certified emission reductions accruing from such project activities to contribute to compliance with part of their quantified emission limitation and reduction commitments under Article 3, as determined by the Conference of the Parties serving as the meeting of the Parties to this Protocol.
4. The clean development mechanism shall be subject to the authority and guidance of the Conference of the Parties serving as the meeting of the Parties to this Protocol and be supervised by an executive board of the clean development mechanism.
5. Emission reductions resulting from each project activity shall be certified by operational entities to be designated by the Conference of the Parties serving as the meeting of the Parties to this Protocol, on the basis of:
(a) Voluntary participation approved by each Party involved;
(b) Real, measurable, and long-term benefits related to the mitigation of climate change; and
(c) Reductions in emissions that are additional to any that would occur in the absence of the certified project activity.
6. The clean development mechanism shall assist in arranging funding of certified project activities as necessary.
7. The Conference of the Parties serving as the meeting of the Parties to this Protocol shall, at its first session, elaborate modalities and procedures with the objective of ensuring transparency, efficiency and accountability through independent auditing and verification of project activities.
8. The Conference of the Parties serving as the meeting of the Parties to this Protocol shall ensure that a share of the proceeds from certified project activities is used to cover administrative expenses as well as to assist developing country Parties that are particularly vulnerable to the adverse effects of climate change to meet the costs of adaptation.
9. Participation under the clean development mechanism, including in activities mentioned in paragraph 3(a) above and in the acquisition of certified emission reductions, may involve private and/or public entities, and is to be subject to whatever guidance may be provided by the executive board of the clean development mechanism.
10. Certified emission reductions obtained during the period from the year 2000 up to the beginning of the first commitment period can be used to assist in achieving compliance in the first commitment period.
1. The Conference of the Parties, the supreme body of the Convention, shall serve as the meeting of the Parties to this Protocol.
2. Parties to the Convention that are not Parties to this Protocol may participate as observers in the proceedings of any session of the Conference of the Parties serving as the meeting of the Parties to this Protocol. When the Conference of the Parties serves as the meeting of the Parties to this Protocol, decisions under this Protocol shall be taken only by those that are Parties to this Protocol.
3. When the Conference of the Parties serves as the meeting of the Parties to this Protocol, any member of the Bureau of the Conference of the Parties representing a Party to the Convention but, at that time, not a Party to this Protocol, shall be replaced by an additional member to be elected by and from amongst the Parties to this Protocol.
4. The Conference of the Parties serving as the meeting of the Parties to this Protocol shall keep under regular review the implementation of this Protocol and shall make, within its mandate, the decisions necessary to promote its effective implementation. It shall perform the functions assigned to it by this Protocol and shall:
(a) Assess, on the basis of all information made available to it in accordance with the provisions of this Protocol, the implementation of this Protocol by the Parties, the overall effects of the measures taken pursuant to this Protocol, in particular environmental, economic and social effects as well as their cumulative impacts and the extent to which progress towards the objective of the Convention is being achieved;
(b) Periodically examine the obligations of the Parties under this Protocol, giving due consideration to any reviews required by Article 4, paragraph 2(d), and Article 7, paragraph 2, of the Convention, in the light of the objective of the Convention, the experience gained in its implementation and the evolution of scientific and technological knowledge, and in this respect consider and adopt regular reports on the implementation of this Protocol;
(c) Promote and facilitate the exchange of information on measures adopted by the Parties to address climate change and its effects, taking into account the differing circumstances, responsibilities and capabilities of the Parties and their respective commitments under this Protocol;
(d) Facilitate, at the request of two or more Parties, the coordination of measures adopted by them to address climate change and its effects, taking into account the differing circumstances, responsibilities and capabilities of the Parties and their respective commitments under this Protocol;
(e) Promote and guide, in accordance with the objective of the Convention and the provisions of this Protocol, and taking fully into account the relevant decisions by the Conference of the Parties, the development and periodic refinement of comparable methodologies for the effective implementation of this Protocol, to be agreed on by the Conference of the Parties serving as the meeting of the Parties to this Protocol;
(f) Make recommendations on any matters necessary for the implementation of this Protocol;
(g) Seek to mobilize additional financial resources in accordance with
Article 11, paragraph 2;
(h) Establish such subsidiary bodies as are deemed necessary for the implementation of this Protocol;
(i) Seek and utilize, where appropriate, the services and cooperation of, and information provided by, competent international organizations and intergovernmental and non-governmental bodies; and
(j) Exercise such other functions as may be required for the implementation of this Protocol, and consider any assignment resulting from a decision by the Conference of the Parties.
5. The rules of procedure of the Conference of the Parties and financial procedures applied under the Convention shall be applied mutatis mutandis under this Protocol, except as may be otherwise decided by consensus by the Conference of the Parties serving as the meeting of the Parties to this Protocol.
6. The first session of the Conference of the Parties serving as the meeting of the Parties to this Protocol shall be convened by the secretariat in conjunction with the first session of the Conference of the Parties that is scheduled after the date of the entry into force of this Protocol. Subsequent ordinary sessions of the Conference of the Parties serving as the meeting of the Parties to this Protocol shall be held every year and in conjunction with ordinary sessions of the Conference of the Parties, unless otherwise decided by the Conference of the Parties serving as the meeting of the Parties to this Protocol.
7. Extraordinary sessions of the Conference of the Parties serving as the meeting of the Parties to this Protocol shall be held at such other times as may be deemed necessary by the Conference of the Parties serving as the meeting of the Parties to this Protocol, or at the written request of any Party, provided that, within six months of the request being communicated to the Parties by the secretariat, it is supported by at least one third of the Parties.
8. The United Nations, its specialized agencies and the International Atomic Energy
Agency, as well as any State member thereof or observers thereto not
party to the Convention, may be represented at sessions of the Conference
of the Parties serving as the meeting of the Parties to this Protocol as
observers. Any body or agency, whether national or international,
governmental or non-governmental, which is qualified in matters covered by
this Protocol and which has informed the secretariat of its wish to
be represented at a session of the Conference of the Parties serving as
the meeting of the Parties to this Protocol as an observer, may be so
admitted unless at least one third of the Parties present object. The
admission and participation of observers shall be subject to the rules of
procedure, as referred to in paragraph 5 above.
1. The secretariat established by Article 8 of the Convention shall serve as the secretariat of this Protocol.
2. Article 8, paragraph 2, of the Convention on the functions of the secretariat, and
Article 8, paragraph 3, of the Convention on arrangements made for the functioning of the secretariat, shall apply mutatis mutandis to this Protocol. The secretariat shall, in addition, exercise the functions assigned to it under this Protocol.
1. The Subsidiary Body for Scientific and Technological Advice and the Subsidiary Body for Implementation established by Articles 9 and 10 of the Convention shall serve as, respectively, the Subsidiary Body for Scientific and Technological Advice and the Subsidiary Body for Implementation of this Protocol. The provisions relating to the functioning of these two bodies under the Convention shall apply mutatis mutandis to this Protocol. Sessions of the meetings of the Subsidiary Body for Scientific and Technological Advice and the Subsidiary Body for Implementation of this Protocol shall be held in conjunction with the meetings of, respectively, the Subsidiary Body for Scientific and Technological Advice and the Subsidiary Body for Implementation of the Convention.
2. Parties to the Convention that are not Parties to this Protocol may participate as observers in the proceedings of any session of the subsidiary bodies. When the subsidiary bodies serve as the subsidiary bodies of this Protocol, decisions under this Protocol shall be taken only by those that are Parties to this Protocol.
3. When the subsidiary bodies established by Articles 9 and 10 of the
Convention exercise their functions with regard to matters concerning
this Protocol, any member of the Bureaux of those subsidiary bodies
representing a Party to the Convention but, at that time, not a party to
this Protocol, shall be replaced by an additional member to be elected by
and from amongst the Parties to this Protocol.
The Conference of the Parties serving as the meeting of the Parties to this Protocol shall, as soon as practicable, consider the application to this Protocol of, and modify as appropriate, the multilateral consultative process referred to in Article 13 of the Convention, in the light of any relevant decisions that may be taken by the Conference of the Parties. Any multilateral consultative process that may be applied to this Protocol shall operate without prejudice to the procedures and mechanisms established in accordance with Article 18.
The Conference of the Parties shall define the relevant principles,
modalities, rules and guidelines, in particular for verification,
reporting and accountability for emissions trading. The Parties
included in Annex B may participate in emissions trading for the purposes of
fulfilling their commitments under Article 3. Any such trading shall be
supplemental to domestic actions for the purpose of meeting quantified
emission limitation and reduction commitments under that Article.
The Conference of the Parties serving as the meeting of the Parties to this Protocol shall, at its first session, approve appropriate and effective procedures and mechanisms to determine and to address cases of non-compliance with the provisions of this Protocol, including through the development of an indicative list of consequences, taking into account the cause, type, degree and frequency of non-compliance. Any procedures and mechanisms under this Article entailing binding consequences shall be adopted by means of an amendment to this Protocol.
The provisions of Article 14 of the Convention on settlement of disputes shall apply mutatis mutandis to this Protocol.
1. Any Party may propose amendments to this Protocol.
2. Amendments to this Protocol shall be adopted at an ordinary session of the Conference of the Parties serving as the meeting of the Parties to this Protocol. The text of any proposed amendment to this Protocol shall be communicated to the Parties by the secretariat at least six months before the meeting at which it is proposed for adoption. The secretariat shall also communicate the text of any proposed amendments to the Parties and signatories to the Convention and, for information, to the Depositary.
3. The Parties shall make every effort to reach agreement on any proposed amendment to this Protocol by consensus. If all efforts at consensus have been exhausted, and no agreement reached, the amendment shall as a last resort be adopted by a three-fourths majority vote of the Parties present and voting at the meeting. The adopted amendment shall be communicated by the secretariat to the Depositary, who shall circulate it to all Parties for their acceptance.
4. Instruments of acceptance in respect of an amendment shall be deposited with the Depositary. An amendment adopted in accordance with paragraph 3 above shall enter into force for those Parties having accepted it on the ninetieth day after the date of receipt by the Depositary of an instrument of acceptance by at least three fourths of the Parties to this Protocol.
5. The amendment shall enter into force for any other Party on the ninetieth day after the date on which that Party deposits with the Depositary its instrument of acceptance of the said amendment.
1. Annexes to this Protocol shall form an integral part thereof and, unless otherwise expressly provided, a reference to this Protocol constitutes at the same time a reference to any annexes thereto. Any annexes adopted after the entry into force of this Protocol shall be restricted to lists, forms and any other material of a descriptive nature that is of a scientific, technical, procedural or administrative character.
2. Any Party may make proposals for an annex to this Protocol and may propose amendments to annexes to this Protocol.
3. Annexes to this Protocol and amendments to annexes to this Protocol shall be adopted at an ordinary session of the Conference of the Parties serving as the meeting of the Parties to this Protocol. The text of any proposed annex or amendment to an annex shall be communicated to the Parties by the secretariat at least six months before the meeting at which it is proposed for adoption. The secretariat shall also communicate the text of any proposed annex or amendment to an annex to the Parties and signatories to the Convention and, for information, to the Depositary.
4. The Parties shall make every effort to reach agreement on any proposed annex or amendment to an annex by consensus. If all efforts at consensus have been exhausted, and no agreement reached, the annex or amendment to an annex shall as a last resort be adopted by a three-fourths majority vote of the Parties present and voting at the meeting. The adopted annex or amendment to an annex shall be communicated by the secretariat to the Depositary, who shall circulate it to all Parties for their acceptance.
5. An annex, or amendment to an annex other than Annex A or B, that has been adopted in accordance with paragraphs 3 and 4 above shall enter into force for all Parties to this Protocol six months after the date of the communication by the Depositary to such Parties of the adoption of the annex or adoption of the amendment to the annex, except for those Parties that have notified the Depositary, in writing, within that period of their non-acceptance of the annex or amendment to the annex. The annex or amendment to an annex shall enter into force for Parties which withdraw their notification of non-acceptance on the ninetieth day after the date on which withdrawal of such notification has been received by the Depositary.
6. If the adoption of an annex or an amendment to an annex involves an amendment to this Protocol, that annex or amendment to an annex shall not enter into force until such time as the amendment to this Protocol enters into force.
7. Amendments to Annexes A and B to this Protocol shall be adopted and enter into force in accordance with the procedure set out in Article 20, provided that any amendment to Annex B shall be adopted only with the written consent of the Party concerned.
1. Each Party shall have one vote, except as provided for in paragraph 2 below.
2. Regional economic integration organizations, in matters within their competence, shall exercise their right to vote with a number of votes equal to the number of their member States that are Parties to this Protocol. Such an organization shall not exercise its right to vote if any of its member States exercises its right, and vice versa.
The Secretary-General of the United Nations shall be the Depositary of this Protocol.
1. This Protocol shall be open for signature and subject to ratification, acceptance or approval by States and regional economic integration organizations which are Parties to the Convention. It shall be open for signature at United Nations Headquarters in New York from
16 March 1998 to 15 March 1999. This Protocol shall be open for accession from the day after the date on which it is closed for signature. Instruments of ratification, acceptance, approval or accession shall be deposited with the Depositary.
2. Any regional economic integration organization which becomes a Party to this Protocol without any of its member States being a Party shall be bound by all the obligations under this Protocol. In the case of such organizations, one or more of whose member States is a Party to this Protocol, the organization and its member States shall decide on their respective responsibilities for the performance of their obligations under this Protocol. In such cases, the organization and the member States shall not be entitled to exercise rights under this Protocol concurrently.
3. In their instruments of ratification, acceptance, approval or
accession, regional economic integration organizations shall declare the
extent of their competence with respect to the matters governed by
this Protocol. These organizations shall also inform the Depositary, who
shall in turn inform the Parties, of any substantial modification in the
extent of their competence.
1. This Protocol shall enter into force on the ninetieth day after the date on which not less than 55 Parties to the Convention, incorporating Parties included in Annex I which accounted in total for at least 55 per cent of the total carbon dioxide emissions for 1990 of the Parties included in Annex I, have deposited their instruments of ratification, acceptance, approval or accession.
2. For the purposes of this Article, "the total carbon dioxide emissions for 1990 of the Parties included in Annex I" means the amount communicated on or before the date of adoption of this Protocol by the Parties included in Annex I in their first national communications submitted in accordance with Article 12 of the Convention.
3. For each State or regional economic integration organization that ratifies, accepts or
approves this Protocol or accedes thereto after the conditions set out in paragraph 1 above for entry into force have been fulfilled, this Protocol shall enter into force on the ninetieth day following the date of deposit of its instrument of ratification, acceptance, approval or accession.
4. For the purposes of this Article, any instrument deposited by a
regional economic integration organization shall not be counted as
additional to those deposited by States members of the organization.
No reservations may be made to this Protocol.
1. At any time after three years from the date on which this Protocol has entered into force for a Party, that Party may withdraw from this Protocol by giving written notification to the Depositary.
2. Any such withdrawal shall take effect upon expiry of one year from the date of receipt by the Depositary of the notification of withdrawal, or on such later date as may be specified in the notification of withdrawal.
3. Any Party that withdraws from the Convention shall be considered as also having withdrawn from this Protocol.
The original of this Protocol, of which the Arabic, Chinese, English, French, Russian and Spanish texts are equally authentic, shall be deposited with the Secretary-General of the United Nations.
DONE at Kyoto this eleventh day of December one thousand nine hundred and ninety-seven.
IN WITNESS WHEREOF the undersigned, being duly authorized to that effect, have affixed their signatures to this Protocol on the dates indicated.
Greenhouse gases
Carbon dioxide (CO2)
Methane (CH4)
Nitrous oxide (N2O)
Hydrofluorocarbons (HFCs)
Perfluorocarbons (PFCs)
Sulphur hexafluoride (SF6)
Sectors/source categories
Energy
Fuel combustion
Energy industries
Manufacturing industries and construction
Transport
Other sectors
Other
Fugitive emissions from fuels
Solid fuels
Oil and natural gas
Other
Industrial processes
Mineral products
Chemical industry
Metal production
Other production
Production of halocarbons and sulphur hexafluoride
Consumption of halocarbons and sulphur hexafluoride
Other
Solvent and other product use
Agriculture
Enteric fermentation
Manure management
Rice cultivation
Agricultural soils
Prescribed burning of savannas
Field burning of agricultural residues
Other
Waste
Solid waste disposal on land
Wastewater handling
Waste incineration
Other
Party Quantified emission limitation or
reduction commitment
(percentage of base year or period)
Australia 108
Austria 92
Belgium 92
Bulgaria* 92
Canada 94
Croatia* 95
Czech Republic* 92
Denmark 92
Estonia* 92
European Community 92
Finland 92
France 92
Germany 92
Greece 92
Hungary* 94
Iceland 110
Ireland 92
Italy 92
Japan 94
Latvia* 92
Liechtenstein 92
Lithuania* 92
Luxembourg 92
Monaco 92
Netherlands 92
New Zealand 100
Norway 101
Poland* 94
Portugal 92
Romania* 92
Russian Federation* 100
Slovakia* 92
Slovenia* 92
Spain 92
Sweden 92
Switzerland 92
Ukraine* 100
United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland 92
United States of America 93
* Countries that are undergoing the process of transition to a market economy.
President William issued a directive on April 15, 1999, requiring an annual report summarizing the carbon dioxide emissions produced by the generation of electricity by utilities and nonutilities in the United States. In response, the U.S. Department of Energy (DOE) and the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) jointly submitted the first report on October 15, 1999. This is the second annual report(1) that estimates the CO2 emissions attributable to the generation of electricity in the United States. The data on CO2 emissions and the generation of electricity were collected and prepared by the Energy Information Administration (EIA), and the report was jointly written by DOE and EPA to address the five areas outlined in the Presidential Directive.
The emissions of CO2 are presented on the basis of total
mass (tons) and output rate (pounds per kilowatthour). The information
is stratified by the type of fuel used for electricity generation and
presented for both regional and national levels. The percentage of
electricity generation produced by each fuel type or energy resource
is indicated.
The 1999 data on CO2 emissions and generation by fuel
type are compared to the same data for the previous year, 1998.
Factors contributing to regional and national level changes in the
amount and average output rate of CO2 are identified and
discussed.
The Energy Information Administration's most recent projections of
CO2 emissions and generation by fuel type for 1999 are
compared to the actual data summarized in this report to identify
deviations between projected and actual CO2 emissions and
electricity generation.
Information for 1998 on voluntary carbon-reducing and
carbon-sequestration projects reported by the electric power sector
and the resulting amount of CO2 reductions are presented.
Included are programs undertaken by the utilities themselves as well
as programs supported by the Federal government to support voluntary
CO2 reductions.
Appropriate updates to the Department of Energy's estimated environmental effects of the Administration's proposed restructuring legislation are included.
In 1999,(2) estimated carbon dioxide emissions in the United States resulting from the generation of electric power were 2,245 million metric tons,(3) an increase of 1.4 percent from the 2,215 million metric tons in 1998. The estimated generation of electricity from all sources increased by 2.0 percent, going from 3,617 billion kilowatthours to 3,691 billion kilowatthours. Electricity generation from coal-fired plants, the primary source of carbon dioxide emissions from electricity generation, was nearly the same in 1999 as in 1998. Much of the increase in electricity generation was produced by gas-fired plants and nuclear plants. The 1999 national average output rate,(4) 1.341 pounds of CO2 per kilowatthour generated, also showed a slight change from 1.350 pounds CO2 per kilowatthour in 1998 (Table 1). While the share of total generation provided by fossil fuels rose slightly, a reduction in the emission rate for coal-fired generation combined with growth in the market share of gas-fired generation contributed to the modest improvement in the output rate.(5)
|
Table 1. Summary of carbon dioxide emissions and Net Generation in the United States, 1998 and 1999 |
||||
|
|
1998 |
1999p |
Change |
Percent |
|
Carbon Dioxide (thousand metric tons)a |
|
|
|
|
|
Coal |
1,799,762 |
1,787,910 |
-11,852 |
-0.66 |
|
Petroleum |
110,244 |
106,294 |
-3,950 |
-3.58 |
|
Gas |
291,236 |
337,004 |
45,768 |
15.72 |
|
Other Fuels b |
13,596 |
13,596 |
- |
- |
|
U.S. Total |
2,214,837 |
2,244,804 |
29,967 |
1.35 |
|
Generation (million kWh) |
|
|
|
|
|
Coal |
1,873,908 |
1,881,571 |
7,663 |
0.41 |
|
Petroleum |
126,900 |
119,025 |
-7,875 |
-6.21 |
|
Gas |
488,712 |
562,433 |
73,721 |
15.08 |
|
Other Fuels b |
21,747 |
21,749 |
2 |
- |
|
Total Fossil-fueled |
2,511,267 |
2,584,779 |
73,512 |
2.93 |
|
Nonfossil-fueled c |
1,105,947 |
1,106,294 |
347 |
0.03 |
|
U.S. Total |
3,617,214 |
3,691,073 |
73,509 |
2.04 |
|
Output Rate d (pounds CO2 per kWh) |
|
|
|
|
|
Coal |
2.117 |
2.095 |
-0.022 |
-1.04 |
|
Petroleum |
1.915 |
1.969 |
0.054 |
2.82 |
|
Gas |
1.314 |
1.321 |
0.007 |
0.53 |
|
Other Fuels b |
1.378 |
1.378 |
- |
- |
|
U.S. Average |
1.350 |
1.341 |
-0.009 |
-0.67 |
|
a
One metric ton equals one short ton divided by 1.1023. To convert
carbon dioxide to carbon units, divide by 44/12. |
||||
Coal
Estimated emissions of CO2 produced by coal-fired generation of electricity were 1,788 million metric tons in 1999 (Table 1), 0.7 percent less than in 1998, while electricity generation from coal was 0.4 percent more than the previous year. The divergent direction of generation and emissions changes may reflect a combination of thermal efficiency improvements, changes in average fuel characteristics, and variances associated with both sampling and nonsampling errors. CO2 emissions from coal-fired electricity generation comprise nearly 80 percent of the total CO2 emissions produced by the generation of electricity in the United States, while the share of electricity generation from coal was 51.0 percent in 1999 (Table 3). Coal has the highest carbon intensity among fossil fuels, resulting in coal-fired plants having the highest output rate of CO2 per kilowatthour. The national average output rate for coal-fired electricity generation was 2.095 pounds CO2 per kilowatthour in 1999 (Table 4).
Coal-fired generation contributes over 90 percent of CO2 emissions in the East North Central, West North Central, East South Central, and Mountain Census Divisions and 84 percent in the South Atlantic Census Division (Table 2). Nearly two-thirds of the Nation's CO2 emissions from electricity generation are accounted for by the combustion of coal for electricity generation in these five regions where most of the Nation's coal-producing States are located. Consequently, these regions have relatively high output rates of CO2 per kilowatthour.
|
Table 2. Estimated Carbon Dioxide Emissions From Generating Units at U.S. Electric Plants by Census Division, 1998 and 1999 (Thousand Metric Tons) |
||||||||||
|
Census Division |
1998 |
1999 |
||||||||
|
Total |
Coal |
Petroleum |
Gas |
Othera |
Total |
Coal |
Petroleum |
Gas |
Othera |
|
|
New England |
50,450 |
16,470 |
23,068 |
7,966 |
2,945 |
52,822 |
14,637 |
24,224 |
11,015 |
2,945 |
|
Middle Atlantic |
189,023 |
139,821 |
17,315 |
28,441 |
3,447 |
190,214 |
134,528 |
15,232 |
37,007 |
3,447 |
|
East North Central |
427,580 |
410,141 |
4,351 |
12,039 |
1,049 |
423,063 |
397,266 |
5,415 |
19,333 |
1,049 |
|
West North Central |
217,123 |
209,858 |
1,521 |
4,726 |
1,018 |
219,104 |
208,786 |
1,957 |
7,342 |
1,018 |
|
South Atlantic |
445,435 |
373,780 |
43,777 |
24,515 |
3,363 |
452,180 |
378,018 |
41,356 |
29,442 |
3,363 |
|
East South Central |
226,749 |
212,350 |
5,018 |
9,299 |
82 |
228,240 |
214,486 |
3,212 |
10,460 |
82 |
|
West South Central |
364,056 |
214,544 |
5,461 |
143,945 |
106 |
380,792 |
221,309 |
5,744 |
153,634 |
106 |
|
Mountain |
219,147 |
206,256 |
888 |
12,002 |
* |
217,543 |
202,421 |
1,278 |
13,843 |
* |
|
Pacific Contiguous |
64,668 |
14,555 |
2,588 |
46,165 |
1,360 |
70,591 |
14,563 |
2,153 |
52,515 |
1,360 |
|
Pacific Noncontiguous |
10,606 |
1,985 |
6,257 |
2,138 |
225 |
10,256 |
1,895 |
5,724 |
2,413 |
225 |
|
U.S. Total |
2,214,837 |
1,799,762 |
110,244 |
291,236 |
13,596 |
2,244,804 |
1,787,910 |
106,294 |
337,004 |
13,596 |
|
aOther
fuels include municipal solid waste, tires, and other fuels that
emit anthropogenic CO2 when burned to generate
electricity. Nonutility data for 1999 for these fuels are
unavailable; 1998 data are used. |
||||||||||
|
Table 3.
Percent of Electricity Generated at U.S. Electric Plants by Fuel
Type and Census Division, 1998 and 1999 |
||||||||||
|
Census Division |
1998 |
1999 |
||||||||
|
Coal |
Petroleum |
Gas |
Othera |
Nonfossil |
Coal |
Petroleum |
Gas |
Othera |
Nonfossil |
|
|
New England |
17.9 |
24.4 |
13.8 |
4.6 |
39.3 |
16.3 |
22.9 |
18.0 |
4.6 |
38.3 |
|
Middle Atlantic |
38.4 |
5.2 |
13.6 |
1.3 |
41.5 |
35.8 |
4.5 |
17.5 |
1.3 |
40.9 |
|
East North Central |
76.3 |
0.8 |
3.8 |
0.4 |
18.8 |
72.0 |
0.7 |
4.4 |
0.4 |
22.5 |
|
West North Central |
75.5 |
0.7 |
2.3 |
0.3 |
21.1 |
73.9 |
0.7 |
3.0 |
0.3 |
22.0 |
|
South Atlantic |
55.3 |
7.2 |
6.6 |
0.7 |
30.2 |
55.5 |
6.7 |
7.8 |
0.7 |
29.2 |
|
East South Central |
66.2 |
2.1 |
3.2 |
* |
28.4 |
68.0 |
1.4 |
3.9 |
* |
26.7 |
|
West South Central |
39.1 |
0.6 |
42.2 |
0.3 |
17.8 |
40.1 |
0.7 |
44.6 |
0.3 |
14.3 |
|
Mountain |
67.9 |
0.2 |
6.8 |
0.1 |
25.0 |
67.5 |
0.3 |
8.1 |
0.1 |
24.1 |
|
Pacific Contiguous |
4.3 |
0.7 |
23.1 |
0.4 |
71.4 |
4.2 |
0.5 |
26.2 |
0.4 |
68.7 |
|
Pacific Noncontiguous |
12.2 |
52.3 |
21.3 |
1.9 |
12.4 |
11.7 |
52.2 |
24.8 |
1.9 |
9.4 |
|
U.S. Total |
51.8 |
3.5 |
13.5 |
0.6 |
30.6 |
51.0 |
3.2 |
15.2 |
0.6 |
30.0 |
|
aOther
fuels include municipal solid waste, tires, and other fuels that
emit anthropogenic CO2 when burned to generate
electricity. Nonutility data for 1999 for these fuels are
unavailable; 1998 data are used. |
||||||||||
|
Table 4. Estimated Carbon Dioxide Emissions Rate From Generating Units at U.S. Electric Plants by Census Division, 1998 and 1999 (Pounds per Kilowatthour) |
||||||||||
|
Census Division |
1998 |
1999 |
||||||||
|
Total |
Coal |
Petroleum |
Gas |
Othera |
Total |
Coal |
Petroleum |
Gas |
Othera |
|
|
New England |
1.059 |
1.934 |
1.984 |
1.213 |
1.339 |
1.077 |
1.827 |
2.156 |
1.250 |
1.328 |
|
Middle Atlantic |
1.071 |
2.062 |
1.884 |
1.188 |
1.502 |
1.058 |
2.089 |
1.872 |
1.178 |
1.502 |
|
East North Central |
1.680 |
2.113 |
2.244 |
1.239 |
1.124 |
1.579 |
2.061 |
2.759 |
1.630 |
1.131 |
|
West North Central |
1.767 |
2.262 |
1.759 |
1.659 |
2.422 |
1.746 |
2.250 |
2.207 |
1.958 |
2.596 |
|
South Atlantic |
1.334 |
2.026 |
1.821 |
1.113 |
1.377 |
1.342 |
2.019 |
1.822 |
1.115 |
1.372 |
|
East South Central |
1.457 |
2.060 |
1.515 |
1.857 |
3.244 |
1.470 |
2.031 |
1.530 |
1.734 |
3.244 |
|
West South Central |
1.469 |
2.214 |
3.955 |
1.376 |
0.151 |
1.529 |
2.215 |
3.170 |
1.382 |
0.151 |
|
Mountain |
1.572 |
2.179 |
2.802 |
1.257 |
||||||